Unit 3: Differentiation

Introduction
We are all familiar with the concept of variation, the mathematical relationship between two quan-
tities that behave in such a way that a change in one of them is accompanied by a change in the
other. To study the rates at which such changes take place, we use a branch of mathematics called
differential calculus. Developed in the 17th century to study motion, differential calculus can
be applied to problems involving such diverse fields as gravitation, heat, light, sound, electricity,
magnetism, hydrology etc. The methods of calculus can be used on many problems that would be
difficult or impossible to solve by algebra and trigonometry alone. In this unit, we introduce the
basic concepts of this powerful branch of mathematics.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define a derivative;

• Define a differentiable function;

• Find derivatives of different functions from first principles;

• Find derivatives of different functions using techniques of differentiation;

• Apply differentiation to solve different problems.

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Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed below.

Derivative, differentiable function, techniques of differentiation, applications of differentiation

3.1 Rate of Change

Consider the function f (x) = 4x whose graph is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: The graph of y = 4x

Now, when x changes from 1 to 3, f (x) changes from 4 to 12.

Thus, the slope (or gradient) of the line is given by

∆y y2 − y1 12 − 4 8
= = = = 4.
∆x x2 − x1 3−1 2

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You can observe from the graph that, for each unit change in x, the change in y is 4. This tells us
that f is changing 4 times faster than the change of x over the interval from x = 1 to x = 3.

Notice that 4y can be obtained by evaluating

f (3) − f (1) = 12 − 4 = 8

and can also be obtained by

∆f = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = f (1 + 2) − f (1)

= f (3) − f (1)
= 12 − 4 = 8

where ∆x is the change in x, i.e., ∆x = x2 − x1 .

Now, this implies that

∆f f (x + ∆x) − f (x) 8
= = =4
∆x ∆x 2
which is the rate of change of f with respect to x.

Thus, the rate of change refers to how much the function changes with respect to the change in the
independent variable.

Note: Whenever a variable is a function of another variable, changes in the value of one variable
are related to the changes in the value of the other. This concept takes us to the discussion
of a derivative.

3.2 The Derivative and Differentiable Function

3.2.1 Derivative

Definition 3.1 Let f (x) be a function. Then the derivative of the function f (x) with respect
to the variable x is the function f 0 defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim , where h = ∆x, (1)
h→0 h

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provided the limit exists.

3.2.2 Differentiable Function

A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at x = a if its derivative exists at that point, and f (x)
is said to be differentiable on an interval if the derivative exists at each point in the interval.

The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation.

3.2.3 Notation for the Derivative

If y = f (x) defines a function, then the derivative of y with respect to x maybe denoted as

dy
f 0 (x) or or y 0
dx

Note that:

dy
(i) f 0 (x), and y 0 is read as “f prime of x”, “dee y by dee x”, and “y prime”, respectively.
dx
(ii) With very rare exceptions f (x + h) 6= f (x) + f (h) and f (x + h) 6= f (x) + h.
∆y
(iii) The derivative is not the quotient but rather is the limit obtained from this quotient as
∆x
∆x approaches zero.

3.3 Relationship between Differentiability and Continuity

The following theorem indicates that a function must be continuous at each point where its deriva-
tive exists.

Theorem 3.1 If f is differentiable at a point x0 , then f is also continuous at x0 .

Proof.
Definition 2.7 is applied to prove continuity. We need to show that lim f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) or
h→0
lim [f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )] = 0. Now,
h→0

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f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim [f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )] = lim ·h
h→0 h→0 h
 
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
= lim · lim h
h→0 h h→0
0
= f (x0 ) · 0 = 0

Remark: Theorem 3.1 implies that a function cannot be differentiable at a point of discontinuity.

Note: Theorem 3.1 shows that differentiability implies continuity. However, its converse is false
because a function maybe continuous at a point but not differentiable at that point.

3.4 Differentiation from First Principles

In this section, we want to find derivatives of functions from “basics”, that is, by applying Defini-
tion 3.1 (of a derivative). Sometimes this is called “differentiation from first principles”.

Example 3.1 Differentiate the following functions with respect to x from first principles;

(a) f (x) = 4x (b) f (x) = x2 + 1 (c) f (x) = 2x2 + x

Solution
For all the functions, we use Definition 3.1 and then simplify the resulting expression before
evaluating the limit.

(a) From Definition 3.1

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
4(x + h) − 4(x)
= lim
h→0 h
4x + 4h − 4x
= lim
h→0 h
4h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 4 = 4.
h→0

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(b) Again, from Definition 3.1
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
[(x + h)2 + 1] − (x2 + 1)
= lim
h→0 h
x + 2xh + h2 + 1 − x2 − 1
2
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2
= lim
h→0 h
h(2x + h)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h) = 2x.
h→0

(c) Likewise, using Definition 3.1 we obtain

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
[2(x + h)2 + (x + h)] − (2x2 + x)
= lim
h→0 h
2x + 4xh + 2h + x + h − 2x2 − x
2 2
= lim
h→0 h
2
4xh + 2h + h
= lim
h→0 h
h(4x + 2h + 1)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (4x + 2h + 1) = 4x + 1.
h→0

Activity 3.1
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x from first principles;

(a) 2 − x (c) x2 + 7x

(b) x3 − x (d) 2x2 + 4x − 3

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3.5 Derivative of a Constant

We want to find the derivative of a constant function. To do this, we consider the theorem below:

Theorem 3.2 The derivative of a constant function is zero (0). That is, if c is any real number
d
and f (x) = c, then f 0 (x) = 0 or (c) = 0.
dx

Proof.
From Definition 3.1 we have

0 f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
c−c
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 0
h→0
= 0

Geometrically, this result is obvious. That is, if f (x) = c is a constant function, then the graph of
f is a line that is parallel to the x−axis and thus, its slope or gradient is 0.

Example 3.2

(i) If y = 8, then y 0 = 0

(ii) If f (x) = 3500, then f 0 (x) = 0

3.6 Derivatives of Sums and Differences

In this section, we consider the derivative of a function that is obtained by adding or subtracting
two functions. Remember that a function is differentiable if it satisfies Definition 3.1.

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Theorem 3.3 If g and k are differentiable functions at x, then g + k is also differentiable and
d d d
[g(x) + k(x)] = [g(x)] + [k(x)]
dx dx dx

Proof.
We use the definition of a derivative to prove this theorem.

d [g(x + h) + k(x + h)] − [g(x) + k(x)]

[g(x) + k(x)] = lim
dx h→0 h
g(x + h) − g(x) + k(x + h) − k(x)
= lim
h→0 h
g(x + h) − g(x) k(x + h) − k(x)
= lim + lim using properties of limits
h→0 h h→0 h
d d
= [g(x)] + [k(x)]
dx dx

In function notation, Theorem 3.3 can be written as

(g + k)0 = g 0 + k 0

Now, g − k can be written as g − k = g + (−1)k. Then applying Theorems 3.5 and 3.3 it follows
that
d d d
[g(x) − k(x)] = [g(x)] − [k(x)]
dx dx dx
and in function notation we can write this result as

(g − k)0 = g 0 − k 0

Note: This property is not limited to two functions only; it can be applied to more than two
functions.

Example 3.3 Let f (x) = x2 + x. Find f 0 (x).

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Solution
We apply Theorem 3.3. Thus,

(x + h)2 − x2 (x + h) − x
f 0 (x) = lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2 2 2
x + 2xh + h − x x+h−x
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2xh + h2 h
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h(2x + h)
= lim + lim 1
h→0 h h→0
= lim (2x + h) + lim 1
h→0 h→0
= 2x + 1.

3.7 Derivative of a Power

One might be asking whether the only way to find derivatives of a power (i.e functions of the form
f (x) = xn ) is from first principles. The answer to the question is NO. Thus, in this section, we
derive a formula that can be used to quickly find the derivative of a power.

Theorem 3.4 (The Power Rule) If n is a positive integer, then for every real value of x
d n
[x ] = nxn−1
dx

Proof.
Let f (x) = xn . Then

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − xn
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h

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Now, expanding (x + h)n using the binomial theorem yields
          
n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−k k n n
x + x h+ x h + ··· + x h + ··· + h − xn
0 1 2 k n
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0
     h  
n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−k k n
xn + x h+ x h + ··· + x h + · · · + h − xn
1 2 k
= lim
h→0
  h
n
nxn−1 h + xn−2 h2 + · · · + hn
2
= lim
h→0
  h 
n n−2 n−1
h nxn−1 + x h + ··· + h
2
= lim factoring out h
h→0
   h 
n n−2
= lim nxn−1 + x h + · · · + hn−1 cancelling a factor of h (2)
h→0 2

We note that every term but the first in (2) has an h, and thus every term but the first approaches
zero as h → 0. Therefore,
f 0 (x) = nxn−1

Remark: The derivative of x to a positive integer power can be found by taking the power and
multiply it by x raised to the power minus one.

Example 3.4 Find y 0 for the following functions;

√
(a) y = 2x3 − 4x (b) y = x

Solution

(a) We apply Theorem 3.4 and differentiate term by term.

Thus, y 0 = (2)(3)x3−1 − 4(1)x1−1 = 6x2 − 4x0 = 6x2 − 4.

(b) We re-write the function as a power and obtain

√ 1
y = x ⇒ y = x2
1 1
∴ y 0 = 21 x 2 −1 = 12 x− 2 = 1
√
2 x
.

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3.8 Derivative of a Constant Times a Function

In this section, we want to find the derivative of the product of a constant and a function.

Theorem 3.5 Let c be a constant. If f is differentiable at x, then so if cf , and

d d
[c f (x)] = c [f (x)]
dx dx

Proof.

d c f (x + h) − c f (x)
[c f (x)] = lim
dx h→0
 h 
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim c
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= c lim using properties of limits
h→0 h
d
= c [f (x)]
dx

In function notation, Theorem 3.5 can be written as

(cf )0 = cf 0

Remark: A constant can be moved through a derivative sign.

Example 3.5 Let f (x) = 8x2 . Find f 0 (x).

Solution
Applying Theorems 3.4 and 3.5 yield
d d
[8x2 ] = 8 [x2 ] = 8 (2x) = 16x
dx dx

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Activity 3.2
Find f 0 (x) for the following functions;

(a) 8x4 + x (c) 2 − x3

√
(b) 4 x (d) (x − 3)2

3.9 Techniques of Differentiation

In this section, we look at techniques that are used to differentiate product, quotient and composi-
tion of functions.

If f (x) = g(x)k(x) is f 0 (x) = g 0 (x)k 0 (x)? We will answer this question using the functions
below.

Let g(x) = x3 and k(x) = x2 .

Thus f (x) = g(x)k(x) = x3 .x2 = x5 ⇒ f 0 (x) = 5x4 .

Now g 0 (x) = 3x2 and k 0 (x) = 2x ⇒ g 0 (x)k 0 (x) = 3x2 .2x = 6x3 .

Therefore, if f (x) = g(x)k(x) then, f 0 (x) 6= g 0 (x)k 0 (x).

3.9.1 Derivative of a Product

Theorem 3.6 (The Product Rule) If g and k are differentiable at x, then so is the product
g · k, and
d d d
[g(x)k(x)] = g(x) [k(x)] + k(x) [g(x)]
dx dx dx

Proof.
We use differentiation from first principles

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d g(x + h) · k(x + h) − g(x) · k(x)

[g(x)k(x)] = lim
dx h→0 h

Now, adding and subtracting g(x + h) · k(x) in the numerator yields

0
z }| {
d g(x + h)k(x + h) −g(x + h)k(x) + g(x + h)k(x) −g(x)k(x)
[g(x)k(x)] = lim
dx h→0 h
g(x + h)[k(x + h) − k(x)] + k(x)[g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0
 h 
k(x + h) − k(x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim g(x + h) · + k(x) ·
h→0 h h
k(x + h) − k(x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim g(x + h) · lim + lim k(x) · lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
d d
= lim g(x + h) [k(x)] + lim k(x) [g(x)] (3)
h→0 dx h→0 dx

But k(x) does not contain h and thus is a constant as h → 0. Therefore,

lim k(x) = k(x) (4)

h→0

Also, it follows from Definition 2.7 that

lim g(x + h) = g(x) (5)

h→0

because g is differentiable at x and by Theorem 3.1 it is continuous at x. Substituting (4) and (5)
into (3) yields

d d
g(x) [k(x)] + k(x) [g(x)]
dx dx

The product rule can be written in function notation as follows:

(g · k)0 = g · k 0 + k · g 0

Remark: The derivative of a product of two differentiable functions is the first function times
the derivative of the second function plus the second function times the derivative of the first
function.

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Note: It is not generally true that (g · k)0 = g 0 · k 0 ; that is, the derivative of a product is not
generally the product of the derivatives.

√
Example 3.6 Let f (x) = (x2 − 3) x. Find f 0 (x).

Solution
We apply the product rule.
Let u = x2 − 3 =⇒ u0 = 2x
√ 1
and v = x =⇒ v 0 = √
2 x
√ 1
∴ f 0 (x) = u0 v + v 0 u = 2x x + √ (x2 − 3).
2 x

3.9.2 Derivative of a Quotient

Theorem 3.7 (The Quotient Rule) Suppose g and k are differentiable at x. If k(x) 6= 0,
then g/k is differentiable at x and

k(x)g 0 (x) − g(x)k 0 (x)

 
d g(x)
= .
dx k(x) [k(x)]2

Proof.
We apply differentiation from first principles and write the fractions as a single fraction.

   
d g(x) 1 g(x + h) g(x)
= lim −
dx k(x) h→0 h k(x + h) k(x)
k(x)g(x + h) − g(x)k(x + h)
= lim
h→0 hk(x + h)k(x)

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Adding and subtracting k(x) · g(x) in the numerator yields
 
0
  z }| {
d g(x)  k(x)g(x + h) −k(x)g(x) + k(x)g(x) −g(x)k(x + h) 
= lim 
 
dx k(x) hk(x + h)k(x)

h→0  

 
1 k(x)[g(x + h) − g(x)] − g(x)[k(x + h) − k(x)]
= lim
h→0 k(x + h)k(x) h
 
1 k(x)[g(x + h) − g(x)] g(x)[k(x + h) − k(x)]
= lim −
h→0 k(x + h)k(x) h h
k(x)[g(x + h) − g(x)] g(x)[k(x + h) − k(x)]
lim − lim
= h→0 h h→0 h
lim k(x + h) · lim k(x)
h→0 h→0
g(x + h) − g(x) k(x + h) − k(x)
lim k(x) lim − lim g(x) lim
= h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
lim k(x + h) · lim k(x)
h→0 h→0
lim k(x) · g 0 (x) − lim g(x) · k 0 (x)
h→0 h→0
= (6)
lim k(x + h) · lim k(x)
h→0 h→0

The expressions g(x) and k(x) do not involve h and therefore,

lim k(x) = k(x) and lim g(x) = g(x) (7)

h→0 h→0

Because k is assumed to be differentiable at x, it is continuous at x. Thus, by Definition 2.7,

lim k(x + h) = k(x) (8)

h→0

Substituting (7) and (8) into (6), we obtain

k(x)g 0 (x) − g(x)k 0 (x)

 
d g(x)
=
dx k(x) [k(x)]2

Using function notation, the quotient rule can be written as

 g 0 k · g0 − g · k0
=
k k2

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Remark: The derivative of a quotient of two differentiable functions is the denominator times
the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator,
all divided by the square of the denominator.

 g 0 g0
Note: It is not generally true that = ; that is, the derivative of a quotient is not generally
k k0
the quotient of the derivatives.

x3 dy
Example 3.7 Let y = . Find .
1−x dx

Solution
We apply the quotient rule.
Let u = x3 ⇒ u0 = 3x2
and v =1−x ⇒ v 0 = −1

dy u0 v − v 0 u 3x2 (1 − x) − (−1)x3 3x2 (1 − x) + x3

∴ = = =
dx v2 (1 − x)2 (1 − x)2
1
Note: If f (x) = , then using the quotient rule (or indeed the formula), we obtain f 0 (x) =
x
0−1 1 1 0 −2x
= − and if f (x) = , then f (x) = . Thus, if g(x) is a differentiable function
x2 x2 x2 [x2 ]2
1
and g(x) 6= 0, then is differentiable and
g(x)

d  0
−g 0
 
d 1 [g(x)] 1
= − dx or = 2
dx g(x) [g(x)]2 g g

The above result is called the reciprocal rule.

1
Example 3.8 If y = , find y 0 .
2x − 1

Solution
Let u = 2x − 1 =⇒ u0 = 2.

Thus, applying the reciprocal rule, we obtain

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u0 −2
y0 = − 2
= .
u (2x − 1)2

Activity 3.3
dy
Find for the following functions;
dx
√ 3
(a) (3x2 − 4) 3 x (c)
2x3−6
x−1
(b) (d) (2x4 + 3x − 2)(5 − x2 )
3−x

3.9.3 Chain Rule

So far we have been able to differentiate only functions of the form axn and combinations of
functions formed by addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In particular, composition
of functions are often encountered.

A composition of functions occurs when a function y can be expressed in terms of u, where u

is a function that can be expressed interms of x.
√
For example, we can show that y = 2x − 4 is a composition of functions by letting u =
√
2x − 4. Then y = u.

Thus, y is a function of u and u is a function of x. We summarise this in the following rule.

If, y is a function of u and u is a function of x, and if y and u have derivatives, then

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx

The above formula is called the chain rule.

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Example 3.9 Find y 0 for each of the following functions;
√
(a) y = (2x + 4)8 (b) y = x2 − 3

Solution

(a) We apply the chain rule.

Let u = 2x + 4 ⇒ y = u8 .

Hence,
dy du
= 8u7 and = 2.
du dx
Thus,
dy dy du
= × = 8u7 × 2
dx du dx
But u = 2x + 4.

dy
∴ = 16(2x + 4)7 .
dx

√
(b) Let u = x2 − 3 ⇒ y= u.

Hence,
dy 1 du
= √ and = 2x.
du 2 u dx

dy dy du 1 x x
∴ = × = √ × 2x = √ = √
dx du dx 2 u u 2
x −3

Activity 3.4
Find y 0 (x) for the following functions;

(a) y = (3x2 − x)40 1−x

(c) y = √4
x2 − 1
 4  2 7
1 x +1
(b) y = 3
(d) y =
4x − 2 2x − 1

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3.10 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

In this section, you will learn about the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions namely; sine,
cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and cotangent.
sin h cos h − 1
We begin by exploring two important trigonometric limits which are lim and lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

3.10.1 Two Basic Trigonometric Limits

sin h cos h − 1
Consider the graphs of the functions f (x) = and f (x) = below.
h h

(a) (b)
Figure 3.2: The graphs of y = (sin h)/h and y = (cos h − 1)/h, respectively

From Figures 3.2(a) and (b), it can be observed that

sin h
lim =1 (9)
h→0 h

and
cos h − 1
lim = 0, (10)
h→0 h
respectively.

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We use limits (9) and (10) to find the derivatives of trigonometric functions. You may wish to know
that we will only find the derivatives of sin x and cos x from first principles and then use these
two as well as the techniques of differentiation to find the derivatives of the other trigonometric
functions.

3.10.2 Derivative of the Sine Function

dy
Let y = sin x. We want to find .
dx
By definition of a derivative
d sin(x + h) − sin x
(sin x) = lim .
dx h→0 h

But, from the addition formula for sin x,

sin(x + h) = sin x cos h + sin h cos x.

Thus,
d sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x
(sin x) = lim
dx h→0 h
sin x (cos h − 1) + sin h cos x
= lim f actor out sin x
h→0 h
0 1
z }| { z }| {
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x lim + cos x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= sin x × 0 + cos x × 1
= cos x

Note: The angles are in radians. Also, the derivative is valid for any composition of functions, and
not just for powers of functions. The chain rule also applies here.

Hence, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

d du
(sin u) = cos u.
dx dx

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3.10.3 Derivative of the Cosine Function

dy
Let y = cos x. We want to find .
dx
From the definition of a derivative
d cos(x + h) − cos x
(cos x) = lim .
dx h→0 h

But, cos(x + h) = cos x cos h − sin x sin h.

Thus,
d cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x
(cos x) = lim
dx h→0 h
cos x (cos h − 1) − sin x sin h
= lim f actor out cos x
h→0 h
0 1
z }| { z }| {
cos h − 1 sin h
= cos x lim − sin x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= cos x × 0 − sin x × 1
= − sin x

Now, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

d du
(cos u) = − sin u.
dx dx

Example 3.10 Find the derivatives of the following functions;

(a) x2 sin x x−1

(c)
sin 2x
(b) cos 3x

Solution

(a) We apply the product rule and proceed as follows:

Let u = x2 ⇒ u0 = 2x
and v = sin x ⇒ v 0 = cos x

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∴ y 0 = u0 v + v 0 u = 2x sin x + x2 cos x.

(b) We apply the chain rule. Let u = 3x ⇒ y = cos u

dy du
Now, = − sin u and = 3.
du dx
Hence,
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= −3 sin u
= −3 sin 3x.

(c) For this function, we apply the quotient rule.

Let u = x − 1 ⇒ u0 = 1
and v = sin 2x ⇒ v 0 = 2 cos 2x
Thus,
u0 v − v 0 u
y0 =
v2
sin 2x − 2(x − 1) cos 2x
=
(sin 2x)2

Activity 3.5
Find the derivative with respect to x for the following functions;

(a) 2x cos2 x (x − 3)2

(c)
sin 3x − 4
sin x sin x + cos x
(b) (d)
2 − cos x (x − 2)3

We now use the derivatives of sine and cosine functions to find the derivatives of tangent, secant,
cosecant and cotangent functions.

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3.10.4 Derivative of the Tangent Function

sin x
Recall that tan x = . Thus,
cos x
 
d d sin x
(tan x) = .
dx dx cos x

We proceed by applying the quotient rule to the function above.

Let u = sin x ⇒ u0 = cos x

and v = cos x ⇒ v 0 = − sin x.

Thus,
u0 v − v 0 u
 
d d sin x
(tan x) = =
dx dx cos x v2
cos x cos x − (sin x)(− sin x)
=
(cos x)2
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
1
=
cos2 x
= sec2 x.

Hence, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

d du
(tan u) = sec2 u.
dx dx

3.10.5 Derivative of the Cotangent Function

1
Recall that cot x = .
tan x
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Now, letting g = tan x and applying the reciprocal rule, we have
g0
 
d d 1
(cot x) = = − 2 where g = tan x
dx dx tan x g
− sec2 x
=
tan2 x
1
= − sec2 x ×
tan2 x
1 cos2 x 1
= − 2 × 2 =− 2
cos x sin x sin x
= − csc2 x.

Hence, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

d du
(cot u) = − csc2 u.
dx dx

3.10.6 Derivative of the Secant Function

1
Recall that sec x = .
cos x
Now, if we let g = cos x and apply the reciprocal rule, we have
g0
 
d d 1
(sec x) = = − 2 where g = cos x
dx dx cos x g
−(− sin x) sin x
= 2
=
cos x cos2 x
sin x 1
= ×
cos x cos x
= tan x sec x.

Thus, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

d du
(sec u) = tan u sec u.
dx dx

3.10.7 Derivative of the Cosecant Function

1
Recall that csc x = .
sin x
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Now, if we let g = sin x and apply the reciprocal rule, we have
g0
 
d d 1
(csc x) = = − 2 where g = sin x
dx dx sin x g
− cos x
=
sin2 x
cos x 1
= − ×
sin x sin x
= − cot x csc x.

Hence, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

d du
(csc u) = − cot u csc u.
dx dx

Note: The derivatives in Sections 3.10.5, 3.10.6 and 3.10.7 can also be found using the quotient
rule.

All the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions can be generalised using the chain rule and
constant k as shown in Table 3.1.

f (x) f 0 (x)
sin kx k cos kx
cos kx −k sin kx
tan kx k sec2 kx
sec kx k tan kx sec kx
cot kx −k csc2 kx
csc kx −k csc kx cot kx

Table 3.1: Summary of derivatives of trigonometric functions

Example 3.11 Find y 0 for the following functions;

√
(a) y = 3 tan 4x (b) y = csc( x + 2) tan3 x
(c) y =
2 + cos x

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Solution
We use techniques of differentiation.

(a) Let u = 4x ⇒ y = tan u.

dy du
Now, = 3 sec2 u and = 4.
du dx
dy dy du
∴ = × = 12 sec2 u = 12 sec2 4x.
dx du dx

√
(b) Let u = x + 2 ⇒ y = csc u.
dy du 1
Thus, = − csc u cot u and = 12 (x + 2)− 2 .
du dx
dy dy du
∴ = ×
dx du dx
1
= − csc u cot u × √
2 x+2
√ √
csc x + 2 cot x + 2
= − √ .
2 x+2

(c) We apply the quotient rule.

Let u = tan3 x = [tan x]3 ⇒ u0 = 3 tan2 x sec2 x using the chain rule and v =
2 + cos x ⇒ v 0 = − sin x.
dy u0 v − v 0 u
∴ =
dx v2
3 tan2 x sec2 x (2 + cos x) − (− sin x) tan3 x
=
(2 + cos x)2
3 tan2 x sec2 x (2 + cos x) + sin x tan3 x
= .
(2 + cos x)2

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Activity 3.6 .

1. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x using any correct method;
√ sin 4x
(a) 3 1 + tan x (c) (e) tan2 x − cot 4x
1 − cos x
sec x − 4 h cos x i2
(b) (d) (f) sec 5x tan 2x
cot x csc 2x

cos x
2. Suppose f ( π3 ) = 4 and f 0 ( π3 ) = −2. Let g(x) = f (x) sin x and h(x) = . Find
f (x)
(a) g 0 ( π3 ). (b) h0 (π/3).

3.11 Implicit Differentiation

Thus far, we have looked at the derivatives of functions of which all of them were of the form
y = f (x). Unfortunately, not all the functions that we are going to look at and seek their derivatives
will be of this form.

Now, consider y to be a function of x and differentiate z with respect to x in the following;

(a) z = xy (b) z = x2 y

In both cases, we apply the product rule. Thus,

dz dy
(a) = x + y = xy 0 + y.
dx dx
dz dy
(b) = 2xy + x2 = 2xy + x2 y 0 .
dx dx

Up to this point, functions have been stated explicitly. Thus, we define the two terms which are
very critical to this section.

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Definition 3.2 A function is said to be an explicit function if the dependent variable is ex-
pressed solely in terms of the independent variable.

If the dependent variable is not expressed solely in terms of the independent variable, then the
function is said to be an implicit function.

For example, y = 2x3 + 3 is an explicit function of x where as for x2 + 2y = 1, y is an

implicit function of x.

Now, we want to find y 0 if xy = 1.

Solution
There are actually two solution methods for this problem and we will look at them both.

1
1. xy = 1 ⇒ y= = x−1 .
x
1
∴ y 0 = −x−1−1 = −x−2 = − .
x2

2. We leave the function in the form it is given and work with it in that form.

Making y the subject of formula in the first solution means that y is a function of x. Thus,
solving for y gives y = y(x).

We now know that y is a function of x. Thus, the function can be written as

xy = xy(x) = 1 (11)

We differentiate both sides of equation (11) with respect to x as follows;

d d
[xy(x)] = (1). (12)
dx dx
Now, applying the product rule on the left hand side of equation (12) leads to
dy
x +1×y =0
dx
=⇒ y + xy 0 = 0
xy 0 = −y
y
∴ y0 = −
x
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1 − x1 1
But y = . Thus, y 0 = = − 2.
x x x

We have seen that both solution techniques have given us the same derivative. The process that
we used in the second solution technique is called implicit differentiation and that is the subject
of this section. Below is a summary for the procedure for implicit differentiation.

Three-step procedure for finding y 0 when y is an implicit function of x

Step 1. Differentiate both sides of the defining equation with respect to x. Use the chain rule for
terms containing y. That is, differentiate with respect to y and multiply by y 0 .

Step 2. Solve the resulting equation for y 0 .

Step 3. Evaluate the derivative at the given value, if necessary.

Example 3.12 Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

(a) x2 + xy + y 3 = 7 (c) (2x + 1)4 = xy 4 + sin x

(b) x3 y 5 + 3x = cos y

Solution
In all these functions, we will differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. All terms
containing y will be differentiated with respect to y and then multiplied by y 0 .

d 2 d d d
(a) (x ) + (xy) + (y 3 ) = (7)
dx dx dx dx
⇒ 2x + xy 0 + y(1) + 3y 2 y 0 = 0 applying the product rule on xy
2x + xy 0 + y + 3y 2 y 0 = 0
xy 0 + 3y 2 y 0 = −2x − y
y 0 (x + 3y 2 ) = −2x − y factoring out y 0
−2x − y
∴ y0 = making y 0 the subject of formula
x + 3y 2

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d 3 5 d d
(b) (x y ) + (3x) = (cos y)
dx dx dx
d 5 d d d
⇒ x3 (y ) + y 5 (x3 ) + (3x) = (cos y)
dx dx dx dx
5x3 y 4 y 0 + 3x2 y 5 + 3 = − sin y y 0
5x3 y 4 y 0 + sin y y 0 = −3x2 y 5 − 3
y 0 (5x3 y 4 + sin y) = −3x2 y 5 − 3
−3x2 y 5 − 3
∴ y0 =
5x3 y 4 + sin y

(c) We apply the chain rule on the left hand side of the equation and proceed as follows;

4 (2x + 1)3 × 2 = y 4 + 4xy 3 y 0 + cos x applying the chain rule on (2x + 1)4
8 (2x + 1)3 = y 4 + 4xy 3 y 0 + cos x
⇒ 4xy 3 y 0 = 8 (2x + 1)3 − y 4 − cos x
8 (2x + 1)3 − y 4 − cos x
∴ y0 =
4xy 3

Activity 3.7
dy
Use implicit differentiation to find for each of the following functions;
dx
√ √
(a) x3 − xy = x + y (c) x + y = 1 (e) sec x2 + tan y = 2x

(b) x2 − (4x − 1)3 = xy 2 (d) 4 − 7xy = (y 2 + 4)5 (f) cos 2x + x3 sin y = 3y 2

3.12 Second and Higher Order Derivatives

Consider the function f (x) = 2x3 − x2 + 5x + 2. The derivative of this function is f 0 (x) =
6x2 − 2x + 5.

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We can find another derivative from the derivative of f (x) called the second derivative by dif-
ferentiating f 0 (x). This derivative can be written as f 00 (x) which is read as “f double prime of
x”.

Thus, f 00 (x) = 12x − 2.

Likewise, the third derivative of f (x) is f 000 (x) which is read as “f triple prime of x” and is found
by differentiating the second derivative of f (x). Thus, f 000 (x) = 12.

Now, any derivative beyond the the first derivative can be referred to as a higher order derivative.
Thus, the second, third, fourth etc are higher order derivatives.

3.12.1 Notation for Higher Order Derivatives

Let f (x) be a function in terms of x. Table 3.2 shows different notations for higher order deriva-
tives.

Derivative
2nd 3rd 4th nth Notation
f 00 (x) f 000 (x) (4)
f (x) (n)
f (x) Common
d2 (x) d3 (x) d4 (x) dn (x) Leibniz
d2 d3 d4 dn
[f (x)] [f (x)] [f (x)] [f (x)] Another form of Leibniz
dx2 dx3 dx4 dxn
D2 f D3 f D f4
Dn f Euler’s

Table 3.2: Notation for higher order derivatives

Note

• f n (x) = [f (x)]n

• f (n) (x) is nth derivative of the function f .

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Example 3.13 Find the fourth derivative of the function v(w) = 3w5 − 4w3 − w.

Solution
We repeatedly differentiate v(w) until we find v (4) . Thus

v 0 = 15w4 − 12w2 − 1
v 00 = 60w3 − 24w we differentiate v 0 with respect to w
v 000 = 180w2 − 24 we differentiate v 00 with respect to w
v (4) = 360w we differentiate v 000 with respect to w

Therefore, the fourth derivative of v(w) is v (4) = 360w.

Activity 3.8 .

1. Find f 00 (x) the following functions;

1 (c) (3 − 2x)4
(a)
x−1
(b) x2 sin x (d) cos 4x + 2x

2. Let y = A cos 2x + B sin 3x, where A and B are constants. Show that
y (4) + 13y 00 + 36y = 0.

3.13 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Recall
The natural logarithm is the logarithm to the base e, where e is an irrational constant and is
approximately equal to 2.71828182845905 · · · .

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The natural logarithm is written as loge x or ln x.

The natural logarithm function (ln x) and the natural exponential function (ex ) are inverses of each
other, leading to the following identities:

eln x = x, x>0 and ln(ex ) = x.

Note: All the rules/laws of logarithms and exponents apply to natural logarithms and natural
exponential functions, respectively as well.

Definition 3.3 The following are some of the definitions of e (listed without proof).

 n
1
(i) e = lim 1+ .
n→∞ n
1
(ii) e = lim (1 + n) n .
n→0

eh − 1
(iii) e is the unique positive number for which lim = 1.
h→0 h
∞
X 1
(iv) e = .
n=0
n!

3.13.1 Derivative of Natural Exponential Function

Let f (x) = ex . We want to find f 0 (x) from first principles. Thus

e(x+h) − ex
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
ex · eh − ex
= lim
h→0 h
ex (eh − 1)
= lim factoring out ex
h→0 h
1
z }| {
x eh − 1
= e lim
h→0 h
= e · 1 = ex
x

Thus, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we have

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d u du
[e ] = eu ×
dx dx

Now, given that y = eax and a is any constant, we want to find y 0 .

We use the chain rule to find the derivative. Thus

Let u = ax ⇒ y = eu .
dy du
Now, = eu and = a.
du dx
Hence,
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= eu × a
= aeax

Therefore, if y = eax and a is any constant, then

d ax
[e ] = a eax
dx
.

For example, the derivative of y = e−2x with respect to x is −2e−2x .

Now, if f (x) = ax (exponential function) and a is any constant, then

f 0 (x) = ax ln a (13)

(Verify result (13) using differentiation from first principles as we did with the derivative of ex ).

We note from (13) that if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule yields

d u du
[a ] = au × ln a ×
dx dx

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dy
Example 3.14 Find for the following functions.
dx
2 √
(a) y = e4x (b) y = 5x (c) y = e3x+x (d) y = (x2 + 1)e x

Solution
We use an appropriate technique of differentiation. In some cases, we will need to apply atleast
two techniques of differentiation.

d 4x
(a) [e ] = 4 e4x .
dx
d x
(b) [5 ] = 5x ln 5.
dx
(c) We apply the chain rule.

Let u = 3x + x2 ⇒ y = eu .
dy du
Then, = eu and = 3 + 2x.
du dx
dy dy du 2
∴ = × = eu × (3 + 2x) = (3 + 2x)e3x+x .
dx du dx
(d) Here, we apply both the product rule and chain rule and proceed as follows:

Let u = x2 + 1 ⇒ u0 = 2x
√ 1 √
and v = e x
⇒ v 0 = √ e x . Thus
2 x

y 0 = u0 v + v 0 u
√ x2 + 1 √
= 2x e x + √ e x
2 x
x2 + 1
 
√
x
= e 2x + √ .
2 x

From solutions of Example 3.14 we note that

(i) If a is any constant and y = af (x) , then

dy
= af (x) · ln a · f 0 (x)
dx

(ii) If y = ef (x) , then

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dy
= ef (x) · ln e · f 0 (x)
dx
= ef (x) · f 0 (x) since ln e = loge e = 1

3.13.2 Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function

Let f (x) = ln x. We want to find f 0 (x) from first principles. Thus

ln (x + h) − ln x
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0
x+h

h
ln x
= lim from rules of logarithms
h→0 h 
1 h
= lim · ln 1 +
h→0 h x

h
Now, let n = =⇒ h = nx and when h → 0 =⇒ n → 0, then
x
d 1
(ln x) = lim ln(1 + n)
dx n→0 nx
1 1
= lim · ln(1 + n)
n→0 x n
1 1
= lim ln(1 + n)
x n→0 n
1 1
= lim ln(1 + n) n from rules of logarithms
x n→0
e
zh }| i{
1 1
= ln lim (1 + n) n
x n→0
1
= · ln e
x
1 1
= .1 = , since ln e = loge e = 1.
x x

Alternatively we could have obtained the same derivative by the following method:
dy
Given that y = ln x, we want to find .
dx
Now, if y = ln x, x > 0 then
y = loge x =⇒ ey = x (14)

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124 M. Maliyoni
that is, changing the function from logarithmic to exponential form.

Differentiating equation (14) implicitly gives

dy dy 1 1
ey =1 =⇒ = y = , x > 0.
dx dx e x

So, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain rule we get

d 1 du d 1 du
[ln u] = · , u > 0 or [ln |u|] = ·
dx u dx dx u dx

Now, we want to find f 0 (x) from first principles given that f (x) = loga x. Thus

loga (x + h) − loga x
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0
x+h

h
loga x
= lim from rules of logarithms
h→0 h  
1 h
= lim · loga 1 +
h→0 h x

h
Now, let n = =⇒ h = nx and when h → 0 =⇒ n → 0, then
x
d 1
(loga x) = lim loga (1 + n)
dx n→0 nx
1 1
= lim · loga (1 + n)
n→0 x n
1 1
= lim loga (1 + n)
x n→0 n
1 1
= lim loga (1 + n) n from rules of logarithms
x n→0
e
zh }| i{
1 1
= loga lim (1 + n) n
x n→0
1
= · loga e
x
1 loge e 1 ln e
= × = × using change of base formula
x loge a x ln a
1 1 1
= × = . (15)
x ln a x ln a

The result in (15) can also be obtained by using the change of base formula and the derivative of

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125 M. Maliyoni
ln x which we already know.

Recall

Theorem 3.8 (Change of Base for Logarithm) If x is any positive number and if a and b
are positive real numbers, a 6= 1, b 6= 1, then
logb x
loga x = (16)
logb a

In words, Theorem 3.8 can be written as

lognew base (number)
logold base (number) =
lognew base (old base)

Now,
 
d d loge x
(loga x) = Applying Theorem 3.8
dx dx loge a
 
d ln x
=
dx ln a
 
1 d
= ln x
ln a dx
1
= .
x ln a

dy
Example 3.15 Find for the following functions;
dx
(a) y = ln(x2 − 6) (b) y = ln |4 + 5x − 2x3 |

Solution
We use an appropriate technique of differentiation. In some cases, we will need to apply atleast
two techniques of differentiation.

(a) We apply the chain rule.

Let u = x2 − 6 ⇒ y = ln u.
dy 1 du
Now, = and = 2x.
du u dx
dy dy du 1 2x
∴ = × = 2x × = 2 .
dx du dx u x −6

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(b) We apply the chain rule.

Let u = 4 + 5x − 2x3 ⇒ y = ln |u|.

dy 1 du
So, = and = 5 − 6x.
du u dx
dy dy du 1 5 − 6x
∴ = × = (5 − 6x) × = .
dx du dx u 4 + 5x − 2x3

From solutions of Example 3.15 we note that, If y = ln [f (x)], then

dy f 0 (x)
=
dx f (x)

Activity 3.9
Find the derivative with respect to x for the following functions;

(a) (e−3x − 2) cos 2x (c) e4x − tan x (e) 2e5x − 5 cos 7x + ln |3x|
3
sin 3x + 5x
 2x
e −4 x2 + 1
(b) (d) (f) ln
1 − ln 2x log3 x − x2 1−x

3.14 Applications of Differentiation

Differentiation is one of the most used branches of mathematics in our daily lives as such it has
a wide range of applications. Thus, in this section, we look at some of the many areas or fields
where differentiation can be applied. It is not possible for us to look at all areas as such, we ask
the reader to put effort and find out other areas that differentiation is/can be applied.

3.14.1 Tangents and Normals

Definition 3.4 A tangent is a straight line or a plane that touches a curve or a curved surface
at a point but does not intersect it at that point.

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Definition 3.5 A line is said to be the normal to a curve at a point if it is perpendicular to
the tangent at that point.

Figure 3.3 shows a tangent and a normal.

n
t

Figure 3.3: Tangent t and normal n

Recall that, perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative reciprocals of each other. In other
words, the product of their slopes/gradients is −1. Thus, if two straight lines are perpendicular
and one has a gradient of m1 , then the gradient of the other line is − m11 .

For instance, the straight line given by the equation y = 2x − 5 has a gradient of 2. Thus, a
perpendicular line to y = 2x − 5 will have a gradient − 12 .

You may wish to note that tangents and normals are most often applied in technological problems.

Now, given that y = f (x), then f 0 (x) implies that the gradient of the function y = f (x) can be
evaluated at any point, x, provided this does not entail division by zero. In other words, the value
of f 0 (x) at a point x gives the gradient of the function/curve at x.

In order to find the equation of a tangent and normal to a curve y = f (x) at x = x1 , the
following steps are followed;

Step 1. Find f 0 (x).

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Step 2. Find the slope m of the line.

(a) For a tangent m = f 0 (x1 ).

1
(b) For a normal m = − 0 , provided f 0 (x1 ) 6= 0.
f (x1 )
Step 3. Find y1 = f (x1 ).

Step 4. Use the point-slope formula y = m(x − x1 ) + y1 to find the equation of the line y =
mx + c.

Example 3.16 Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x2 − 5x + 6 at
x = 2.

Solution
Firstly, we find y 0 . Thus, y 0 = 2x − 5.

So, the slope of the tangent at x = 2 is given by

m = y 0 (2) = 2(2) − 5 = 4 − 5 = −1.

The y − value of the point at which the tangent touches the curve is

y1 = y(2) = 22 − 5(2) + 6 = 4 − 10 + 6 = 0.

Thus, the tangent is a line through the point (2, 0) with slope −1.

We now substitute the values x = 2 and y = 0 in the point-slope formula to find the equation of
the tangent. Thus,
y = m(x − x1 ) + y1 = −1(x − 2) + 0 = −x + 2.

Therefore, the equation of the tangent is y = −x + 2.

Now, the gradient of the normal is

1 1
m=− =− = 1.
y 0 (2) −1
Hence, the equation of the normal is

y = m(x − x1 ) + y1 = 1(x − 2) + 0 ⇒ y = x − 2.

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Example 3.17 Show that the point (−2, 2) is on the curve, x2 + y 2 = 8. Hence find the
equation of the line tangent to the curve y 2 + x2 = 8 at (−2, 2).

Solution
To show whether the point (−2, 2) is on the curve x2 + y 2 = 8, we substitute x = −2 and y = 2
on the left-hand side of the equation and see if it is equal to the right-hand side. Thus

LHS = x2 + y 2 = (−2)2 + (2)2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = RHS.

Hence, the point (−2, 2) is on the curve x2 + y 2 = 8.

Now, differentiating the function implicitly gives

2x + 2yy 0 = 0

From which we obtain

x
y0 = − .
y
At (−2, 2),
(−2) 2
m=− = = 1.
2 2
Therefore, the equation of the tangent is

y = m(x − x1 ) + y1 = x − (−2) + 2 ⇒ y = x + 4.

Note: A value of x for which the function f (x) = 0 is called a zero/root of f (x).

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Activity 3.10

(a) Find the points on the curve given by y = x3 − 6x2 + x + 3 where the tangents are parallel
to the line y = x + 5.

(b) Find the equation of the tangent line and normal to the curve x3 − (2x − 1)4 = xy at the point
(1, 0).

(c) Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x3 − 3x2 + x − 1 at the point x = 3.

(d) Find the equation of each tangent of the function x3 + x2 + x + 1 which is perpendicular to
the line 2y + x + 5 = 0.

3.14.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

In sketching the graph of a differentiable function it is important to know where the graph increases
(i.e., rises from left to right) and where it decreases (i.e., falls from left to right) over an interval. In
this section we use derivatives to determine where a graph is increasing and where it is decreasing.
We also discuss critical points and their nature (local or relative extrema). A function that is
increasing or decreasing on an interval is said to be monotonic on the interval.

Consider the graph the shown in figure 3.4.

From figure 3.4, we observe that the curve increases until the point A is reached. At point A, the
curve begins to decrease until point B is reached. From point B on, the curve starts to increase
again. Towards A the gradient/slope of the tangent at each and every point is positive, that is,
greater than zero. On the other hand, the gradient/slope of the tangent at each and every point
between points A and B is negative, that is, less than zero. As point A is approached, the slopes
of tangents become less steep and decrease. At A, the gradient/slope of the line tangent is 0.
Immediately to the right of A, the slopes of the tangents are negative and so on. Similarly, the
gradient of the line tangent at point B is 0. Recall that, the slope of a tangent at any point on the

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Figure 3.4: An increasing and decreasing function

curve is given by the value of the derivative at that point. Clearly, this means that the derivative of
a function can tell us whether a function is decreasing or not. We summarise this concept in the
following theorem.

Theorem 3.9 Suppose that f is continuous on (a, b) and differentiable on (a, b).

(i) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b).

(ii) If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b).

Proof.
Let x1 and x2 be any two points in (a, b) with x1 < x2 . Applying the mean value theorem to f
on (x1 , x2 ) leads to
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f 0 (c)(x2 − x1 ) (17)

for some c between x1 and x2 .

The sign of the right-hand side of equation (17) is the same as the sign of f 0 (c) since x2 − x1 is
positive. Hence, f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) if f 0 is positive on (a, b) and f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) if f 0 is negative on
(a, b).

Figure 3.5 illustrates this concept.

The above concepts are summarised below;

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Figure 3.5: An illustration of increasing and decreasing function

Criteria Function Direction of Graph

f0 > 0 Increasing Concave up %

f0 < 0 Decreasing Concave down &

At points A and B in Figure 3.4 the gradient of the tangent is 0, that is, f 0 (x) = 0. Thus, point A
is called local/relative maximum and point B is called a local/relative minimum. These points
are neither the highest points nor the lowest points on the curve/graph since the curve keeps going
higher and higher to the right and also lower and lower to the left. The local/relative extrema
refers to either the local maximum or local minimum. The x − values for which the derivative is
zero or does not exist are called critical values/numbers. Thus, the points on the graph associated
with critical numbers are called critical points or turning points of the curve.

Definition 3.6 .

(a) A number x0 for which f 0 (x0 ) = 0 is called a critical number.

(b) A point (x0 , y0 ) = (x0 , f (x0 )) for which f 0 (x0 ) = 0 is called a critical point.

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Thus, a critical point (say A or B) in figure 3.4 can either be a maximun, a minimum or neither.
See (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6: Critical points and their nature

The following is a test for determining local extrema for critical points of a fucntion.

First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

Suppose that c is a critical point of a continuous function f , and that f is differentiable at every
point in some interval containing c except possibly at c itself. Moving across this interval from
left to right,

(i) if f 0 changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c;

(ii) if f 0 changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c;

(iii) if f 0 does not change sign at c (that is, f 0 is positive on both sides of c or negative on both
sides of c), then f has no local extremum at c.

Example 3.18 Find the critical points of f (x) = x3 − 12x − 5 and identify the intervals on
which f is increasing and on which f is decreasing.

Solution
We find the first derivative of f with respect to x. Thus,

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 12

To find critical numbers, we solve the equation f 0 (x) = 0, that is,

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 12 = 0 =⇒ (x + 2)(x − 2) = 0

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Therefore, the critical numbers are x = −2 and x = 2. Critical points are found by evaluating
f (x) at each critical number;

f (−2) = (−2)3 − 12(−2) − 5 = −8 + 24 − 5 = 11

f (2) = (2)3 − 12(2) − 5 = 8 − 24 − 5 = −21

Thus, the critical points are (−2, 11) and (2, −21).

Now, these critical points subdivide the domain of f into nonoverlapping open intervals (−∞, −2),
(−2, 2), and (2, ∞) on which f 0 (x) is either positive or negative. To determine the sign of f 0 (x),
we evaluate f 0 (x) at a convenient point in each subinterval. Then, we apply Theorem 3.9 to
determine the interval on which the function is either increasing or decreasing. The results are
summarized in the table below.

Interval −∞ < x < −2 −2 < x < 2 2<x<∞

f 0 (x) evaluated f 0 (−4) = 36 f 0 (0) = −12 f 0 (4) = 36
Sign of f 0 (x) + − +
Behaviour of f 0 (x) Increasing Decreasing Increasing

The nature of the critical points can also be determined using the second derivative test.

Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema

The following criteria is used to determine the nature of critical points of a curve. If f is twice
differentiable and

(i) f 00 (x0 ) > 0 and f 0 (x0 ) = 0, then f has a minimum at x0 . See Figure 3.7(a).

(ii) f 00 (x0 ) < 0 and f 0 (x0 ) = 0, then f has a maximum at x0 . See Figure 3.7(b).

0
Note: If f 00 (x0 ) = 0, where f (x0 ) = 0, then the point is neither a maximum nor a minimum. In
fact, this point is called a point of inflection. This is the point where the function changes its sign.

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(a) (b)
Figure 3.7: Second derivative test and nature of critical points

Example 3.19 Determine the nature of the critical points of the function given by f (x) =
27x − x3 .

Solution
We first of all compute the derivative of f (x). Thus

f 0 (x) = 27 − 3x2 .

Then, we find critical values of f (x) by solving the equation

f 0 (x) = 0 ⇒ 27 − 3x2 = 0,

from which we see that

x = 3 or x = −3.

Now, we find the critical point(s) of the function by evaluating the function f (x) at the critical
values. Thus,

f (3) = 27(3) − (3)3 = 81 − 27 = 54 and

f (−3) = 27(−3) − (−3)3 = −81 + 27 = −54.

Hence, the critical points of the function are (3, 54) and (−3, −54).

We now use the second derivative test to determine the nature of the critical points. Hence, we

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find the second derivative of f (x). Now

f 00 (x) = −6x.

Hence,
f 00 (3) = −6(3) = −18 < 0 =⇒ (3, 54) is a local maximum.

and
f 00 (−3) = −6(−3) = 18 > 0 =⇒ (−3, −54) is a local minimum.

3.14.3 Graph Sketching

In this section we use derivatives as discussed in Section 3.14.2 to sketch graphs of different
functions.

Example 3.20 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = 27x − x3 in Example 3.19.

Solution
We have already seen that f (x) has two critical points, that is, (3, 54) which is a local maximum
and (−3, −54) which is a local minimum.

Also, we see that when x = 0, y = f (0) = 0. That is, the graph of f (x) passes through the
origin, (0, 0).

We now plot the graph that passes through the origin with turning points at (3, 54) and (−3, −54).
The graph of this function is plotted in figure 3.8.

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Figure 3.8: The graph of y = 27x − x3

x2
Example 3.21 Sketch the graph of y = .
x+1

Solution
We first find y 0 using the quotient rule.

Now, let u = x2 ⇒ u0 = 2x
and v = x + 1 ⇒ v 0 = 1. Hence
u0 v − uv 0
y0 =
v2
2x(x + 1) − x2 x2 + 2x
= =
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2

We now find the critical value(s) by solving for x in y 0 = 0. Thus

x2 + 2x
y0 = 2
= 0 ⇒ x2 + 2x = x(x + 2) = 0
(x + 1)

Hence, the critical values are x = 0 and x = −2.

Now, when
02 0
x = 0; y= = = 0.
0+1 1
and when
(−2)2 4
x = −2; y= = = −4.
−2 + 1 −1
So the critical points are (0, 0) and (−2, −4).

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To determine the nature of the critical points, we find the second derivative of the function.

Now, let u = x2 + 2x ⇒ u0 = 2x + 2
and v = (x + 1)2 ⇒ v 0 = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2. Hence
u0 v − uv 0
y 00 =
v2
(2x + 2)(x + 1)2 − (x2 + 2x)(2x + 2)
=
[(x + 1)2 ]2
(2x + 2)[(x + 1)2 − (x2 + 2x)]
=
(x + 1)4
2(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 1 − x2 − 2x)
=
(x + 1)4
2(x + 1)(1)
=
(x + 1)4
2
= .
(x + 1)3

Now,
2 2 2
y 00 (0) = 3
= 3 = =2>0
(0 + 1) 1 1
and hence (0, 0) is a local minimum point.

Similarly,
2 2 2
y 00 (−2) = 3
= 3
= = −2 < 0
(−2 + 1) (−1) −1
and hence (−2, −4) is a local maximum point.

We also note that at x = −1, the function is undefined, hence, x = −1 is a vertical asymptote.
The graph is plotted in figure 3.9.

x2
Figure 3.9: The graph of y =
x+1

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Activity 3.11

1. Let f (x) = x3 − 3x + 7. Use this function to answer the following questions;

(a) Find the critical points (or turning points) of the function.
(b) Determine the nature of the critical points found in (1a).
(c) Use the information in (1b) to sketch the graph of f (x).

2. Suppose (−1, 3) is a critical point for the curve f (x) = mx3 + 3x2 − 6x − 2.

(a) Find the value of m.

(b) Determine whether the critical point (−1, 3) is a local minimum, local maximum or
neither.

3. Use derivatives to sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 .

3.14.4 Applied Maximum and Minimum Problems

In this section, we look at how differentiation can be used to solve some applied optimization
problems.

Example 3.22 A farmer has 100m of fencing. He wishes to to fence a rectangular field one
side of which need no fencing as it is formed by a straight river. What is the greatest area he can
enclose?

Solution
We sketch the rectangular field in question. See figure 3.10

Now, let the length of the field be L and the width be W , then the fencing available will be used
to cover three sides of the rectangular field. Thus

100 = L + W + W = L + 2W =⇒ L = 100 − 2W.

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Figure 3.10: The rectangular field

If the area of the field is A, then

A = Length × Width = (100 − 2W ) W = 100W − 2W 2 .

dA
Since we want to find the greatest area, we compute . Thus
dW
dA
= 100 − 4W.
dW
dA
Now, we find the critical value by solving = 0 for W . Hence
dW
100 − 4W = 0 =⇒ W = 25.

We test whether this critical value will give a maximum, minimum or neither.

Thus
A00 (W ) = −4 < 0

which is a maximum. So, the length of the field is

L = 100 − 2W = 100 − 2(25) = 100 − 50 = 50.

Hence, the area is

A = Length × Width = L × W = 50 × 25 = 1, 250.

Therefore, the greatest area he can enclose is 1, 250 m2 .

Example 3.22 illustrates the following five-step procedure that can be used for solving many ap-
plied maximum and minimum problems.

Step 1. Draw an appropriate figure and label the quantities relevant to the problem.

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Step 2. Find a formula for the quantity to be maximized or minimized.

Step 3. Using the conditions stated in the problem to eliminate variables, express the quantity to
be maximized or minimized as a function of one variable.

Step 4. Find the interval of possible values for this variable from the physical restrictions in the
problem.

Step 5. If applicable, use the techniques covered in section 3.14.2 to obtain the maximum or
minimum.

However, not all problems follow the steps outlined above although many of them do.

Example 3.23 If the number of tourists taking a bus tour of a city is exactly 30, a company
charges $20 per person. For each additional person exceeding 30, the charge per person is reduced
by $0.50. Use derivatives to determine the number of tourists a bus should carry in order to
maximise the company’s revenue per bus.

Solution
Let x be the number of additional people.

So, from the question, we formulate a function given by the equation

y = (20 − 0.5x)(30 + x) = 600 + 20x − 15x − 0.5x2 = 600 + 5x − 0.5x2 . (18)

We now differentiate equation 18 with respect to x. Thus

y 0 = 5 − x.

Now, solving the equation

y0 = 0

leads to
5−x=0 =⇒ x = 5.

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At this point, we check whether this value will give us a maximum or not by computing the second
derivative of y with respect to x and then evaluating it at x = 5. That is,

y 00 = −1.

Now, at x = 5, we obtain
y 00 (5) = −1 < 0

and it is indeed a maximum.

Therefore, the bus should carry 30 + x = 30 + 5 = 35 tourists in order to maximise the com-
pany’s revenue.

Activity 3.12

(a) A farmer has 2000m of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field. What is the largest
fenced area of field the farmer can get?

(b) A cylindrical tin, including a top and a bottom is to be made from 10m2 of metal. What will
be its radius if it is to be made to have the greatest possible volume?

Summary
In this Unit, we have looked at the concept of a derivative of a function (in terms of a limit) and a
differentiable function. We have seen how a derivative of a function can be found from first prin-
ciples, that is, using the definition of a limit. The Unit also covered techniques of differentiation
as well as derivatives of different types of functions, for example, exponential, logarithmic, and

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trigonometric functions. Since differentiation can help us solve many types of real-world prob-
lems, the Unit also looked at various applications of differentiation which include tangents and
normals, increasing and decreasing functions, graph sketching, and optimisation (maximum and
minimum) problems.

Suggestions for Further Reading

Anton, H. (2012). Calculus, 10th edition. John Wiley, New York.

Anton, H. (1992). Calculus with Analytic Geometry. John Wiley, New York.

Gersting, J.L. (2012). Technical Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Dover Publications Inc, New
York.

Larson, R. & Edwards, B.H. (2013). Calculus, 10th edition. Brooks/Cole, Boston.

Stewart, J. (2015). Calculus, 8th edition. Brooks Cole, Salt Lake City.

Weir, M.D. & Hass, J. (2010). Thomas’ Calculus, 12th edition. Pearson, Boston.

Zill, D.G. & Wright, W.S. (2011). Calculus: Early Transcendentals, 4th edition. Jones and
Bartlett Publishers LLC, Sudbury.

Unit Test

1. Use first principles to differentiate the following functions with respect to x;

1 √
(a) f (x) = x + 1 (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) = x
x
dy
2. Find for the following functions using any correct method;
dx

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x
(a) y = x e−2x 4 
1−x 2 5

(b) y = (c) y =
1 + ln 2x 3x + 4

g(x)
3. Suppose g(x) and k(x) are differentiable functions of x. If f (x) = and k(x) 6= 0,
k(x)
g 0 (x)k(x) − k 0 (x)g(x)
use the quotient rule to show that f 0 (x) = .
[k(x)]2
4. Use implicit differentiation to find y 0 for the following curves.

(a) esin x = ln y

(b) x3 + (2y − 1)4 = 6x2 y 2

(c) (2x − x2 )4 − cos y = xy − x3

t
5. Let g(t) = . Evaluate g 00 (a).
t+1
x−1
6. Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve y = that are parallel to the line
x+1
x − 2y = 2.

7. Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + x − 1.

(a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve f at x = 3.

(b) Find the equation of the normal to the curve f at x = 3.

8. Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 .

(a) Find the critical points of f .

(b) Identify the interval on which f is increasing and on which f is decreasing.

(c) Determine the nature of the critical points found in 8a.

(d) Use the results in 8a, 8b, and 8c to sketch the graph of f .

9. There are 50 mango trees in an orchard. Each tree produces 800 mangoes. For each addi-
tional tree planted in the orchard, the output per tree drops by 10 mangoes. Use derivatives
to find the number of mango trees that should be added to the existing orchard in order to
maximize the total output of the trees. [7 Marks]

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Answers to Unit Activities

ACTIVITY 3.1

(a) −1 (b) 3x2 − 1 (c) 2x + 7 (d) 4x + 4

ACTIVITY 3.2

(a) 32x3 + 1 (c) −3x2

3
1 x− 4
(b) √4
or (d) 2(x − 3)
4 x3 4

ACTIVITY 3.3

√ 3x2 − 4 18x2
(a) 6x 3 x + √ (c) −
3
3 x2 (2x3 − 6)2
2
(b) (d) (8x3 + 3)(5 − x2 ) − 2x(2x4 + 3x − 2)
(3 − x)2

ACTIVITY 3.4
√ 3
(a) 40(3x2 − x)39 (6x − 1) −2 4 x2 − 1 (x2 − 1) 4 − x(1 − x)
(c) 3 √
2(x2 − 1) 4 x2 − 1
48x2 7(x2 + 1)6 (2x2 − 2x − 2)
(b) − (d)
(4x3 − 2)5 (2x − 1)8

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ACTIVITY 3.5

(a) 2 cos2 x − 4x cos x sin x 2(x − 3)(sin 3x − 4) − 3 cos 3x(x − 3)2

(c)
(sin 3x − 4)2
cos x(2 − cos x) − sin2 x x cos x − x sin x − 5 cos x − sin x
(b) (d)
(2 − cos x)2 (x − 2)4

ACTIVITY 3.6

sec2 x −2 cos x sin x + 2 cot 2x cos x

1. (a) (d)
3(1 + tan x)
2
3 csc2 2x
sec x tan x cot x + csc2 x(sec x − 4)
(b) (e) 2 sec2 x tan x + 4 csc2 4x
cot2 x
4 cos 4x(1 − cos x) − sin x sin 4x
(c) (f) 5 sec 5x tan 5x tan 2x + 2 sec2 2x sec 5x
(1 − cos x)2
√ √
2. (a) − 3 + 2 −2 3 + 1
(b)
16

ACTIVITY 3.7

1 − 3x2 + y −7y
(a) − (d)
x+1 10y(y 2 + 4)4 + 7x
−192x2 + 98x − 12 − y 2 2 − 2x sec x2 tan x2
(b) (e)
2xy sec2 y
√ √ √
y y x 2 sin 2x − 3x2 sin y
(c) − √ or − (f)
x x x3 cos y − 6y

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ACTIVITY 3.8
2 (c) 48(3 − 2x)2
(a)
(x − 1)3
(b) −x2 sin x + 4x cos x + 2 sin x (d) −16 cos 4x

ACTIVITY 3.9

(a) −3e−3x cos 2x − 2 sin 2x (e−3x − 2)

x(3 cos 3x + 5x ln 5)(1 − ln 2x) + sin 3x + 5x
(b)
x(1 − ln 2x)2
(c) 4e4x − sec2 x
 
1

2x 2 2x
2 2e (log3 x − x ) − (e − 4) − 2x 
e2x − 4

 x ln 3
(d) 3  
log3 x − x2  (log x − x2 )2
3


1
(e) 10e5x + 35 sin 7x +
x
−x2 + 2x + 1
(f)
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)

ACTIVITY 3.10

(a) x = 0 or x=4 (c) Tangent: y = 10x − 28

x 23
Normal: y = − +
10 10
(b) Tangent: y = −5x + 5
x 1 106
Normal: y = − (d) y = 2x + ; y = 2x + 2
5 5 21

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ACTIVITY 3.11

1. (a) (−1, 9) and (1, 5)

(b) (−1, 9) - local maximum; (1, 5) - local minimum

(c) y-intercept: y = 7

2. (a) 4 (b) (−1, 3) is a local maximum

3. Critical points: (0, 0) - local maximum; (2, −4) - local minimum

x-intercept: x = 3

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