Consumer Electronics

Dept of ECE Course Code –BEC654B

Module 2

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 Audio Compact Disc
Systems
Dept of ECE

17-Mar-2025 2
 Introduction
• Audio systems has also gone digital.
• A compact disc is a special disc in which the audio signals
are stored in digital form.
• The recording and reproduction of sound on compact disc
(CD) is much more complex than on cassettes.
Dept of ECE • Compact discs offer complete noise free recording &
reproduction.
• Compact discs are more costly than tapes but the costs are
likely to come down in future.

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 Comparison of CD and Tape
Advantages –
Recording and reproduction of audio signals on compact discs offer a
number of advantages. Some of these are
• Complete elimination of noise and distortion. No Vow, flutter,
rumble etc.
• Better frequency response in the complete audio frequency range.
• High signal to noise ratio
• Surface of CD is not affected by dust, grease etc.
Dept of ECE • Even if some bits are lost, error detecting codes can restore the
information.
• High channel separation.
• More information can be stored over the same area.
Disadvantages –
• High cost
• Recording and reproduction processes are more complex.
 Optical Recording
• The audio signals from the microphone are converted into digital
signals (strings of 0 and 1) by pulse code modulation (PCM).
• The audio signal is sampled and the sample is converted to binary.
• The frequency of sampling should be twice the highest frequency in
the signal.
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 • The record of digital audio signals is in the form of pits on a CD.
• Each pit is 1 μm deep and 0.5 μm wide with length of pits varying
from 0.9 μm to3.3 μm.
• These pits are on circular concentric bands called tracks.
• The separation between tracks (known as pitch of track) is 1.6 μm.
• Each sample has 16 bits so that the number of bits per second is 44.1*
103 *16 = 705600. These are only audio bits.
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• Successive blocks of audio bits have parity bits
(i.e. bits for correction and controlling signals).
These bits modulate the laser beam in on-off
mode.
• When laser beam is off the output is 1 and when
laser beam is on the output is 0. The modulation of
laser beams is shown by block diagram.
• The microphone converts the sound waves into
electrical signals.
• After amplification these signals are sampled and
conditioned.
• The next stage is error detection and correction.
• The sampling, conditioning, error detection and
correction operations are controlled by clock
pulses (as in a digital computer).
• The corrected signal modulate the laser beam.
 • The modulated laser beam produces the record on a recording disc
known as resist master disc (RMD). This disc is fixed on to a turn
table which is rotated by a constant speed motor.

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 Details of Compact Disc
The recorded compact disc has the following dimensions &
features
• Thickness of disc = 1.2 mm
• Diameter of disc = 12 cm
• Rotation: Anticlockwise
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• Velocity of scanning = 1.2 m/s
• Direction of pick up: linear from centre towards
circumference
• Speed = 500 rpm to 200 rpm
• Storage capacity = 540 mega bytes per side
• Playing time = 60 mins
 • Transducer: infra red photo diode
• Sampling frequency = 44.1 kHz
• Track pitch = 1.6 μm
• Pick up: solid state laser using Aluminium Gallium
Arsenide
• Quantisation = 16 bit
Dept of ECE • Bit-rate = 43218 M bits/s
• Error correction bit = 3548
• Number of levels = 65536 per channel
 Details of Recording Process
• The raw disc (known as master disc) is made of optically ground
glass.
• After cleaning and polishing, a layer of photo resistive material is
applied. This layer is 0.12 μm thick.
• Then a modulated laser beam is focused on to the disc. This beam
Dept of ECE reacts with the photo resistive material.
• The beam is driven from the centre of the disc towards the
circumference as the disc rotates. As the beam goes from centre
towards circumference the radius is increasing.
• To keep the velocity of the laser beam along the disc surface constant
it is necessary to reduce the speed of the disc slowly.
 • The next process in the preparation of CD, is developing, which
hardens the unexposed portions of the disc.
• The next is the etching process which removes the exposed areas to
create pits on the surface of the disc.
• Now a coating of silver is given to make the disc electrically
conducting.
• The next step is nickle plating to give the positive master copy. From
the positive master copy a number of copies can be obtained. This
Dept of ECE disc is then plated.
• When removed the plating gives a stamper disc. Then a disc of poly
carbonate is pressed on the stamperdisc. From one stamper disc a
number of copies can be made.
• The final copy is given a transparent laye, a lacquer for protection
and put in a plastic jacket.
 Details of Playback Process
• The compact disc is scanned optically by a laser beam in a
CD player.
• The laser beam is solid state laser of Aluminium gallium
arsenide having a wavelength of 780 μm.
• This laser beam is made to fall on the compact disc through a
half silvered mirror.
• The diameter of light spot is about 1 μm.
• The half silvered mirror allows the beam to pass through it
but does not allow passage of reflected beam. The reflected
beam passes through a lens and falls on a photodiode.
• If the beam is reflected from a pit on the compact disc, the
extent of reflection is very minute and it represents digits 0.
When the reflection is from flat of the disc, full reflection
occurs and it represents digits 1.
• Thus the reflection of beam from the CD generates binary
numbers 0 and 1.
• The output from photodiode is the audio output in binary
form, it is converted into analog form by D/A (digital to
analog) converter.
 • For converting the information on the CD into digital form,
the entire disc (or the required portion) has to be scanned
by the laser beam.
• The optical pick up is mounted on a pivoting arm which
describes a radial arc across the disc so that the complete
track can be scanned.
• On the disc surface the scanning is from centre towards
circumference of the disc.
• The pivotal arm is moved across the disc by a linear motor.
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• When the coil of the motor is energized the pick up can be
directed to any part of the disc.
• After locating the required information the pick up follows
the track very accurately. A tracking servo system ensures
that any deviation of the pick up from the track is
corrected.
Dept of ECE

• Control signals allow the disc to be scanned in any desired

sequence. This sequence can be controlled from a key board.
• A clock signal obtained from the disc itself is compared with a
signal from a crystal oscillator. This discrepancy gives rise to
an error signal/correction signal which is applied to the servo
system.
Dept of ECE
• Since the circumference of outer tracks is more than that of
tracks near the centre, the rotational speed of the disc is varied
from 500 rpm at centre to 200 rpm at the outermost edge. This
is done by varying the speed of the driving motor.
• The disc is scanned at 1.2 m/s. The total length of tracks on a
CD is 6 km. Thus we have a playing time of 60 minutes in
addition to 20 minutes time for error correction.
 D/A Convertor
• It is a binary ladder network for
D/A conversion
• From node 1 the resistance to
the digital to the digital source
is 2R and resistance to ground is
also 2R.
Dept of ECE • From node 2 the resistance to
the digital to the digital source
is 2R and resistance to ground is
(2R)(2R)
R+ = 2R.
2R+2R
• Thus from each of nodes 1, 2, 3,
4, the resistance to source and
ground is 2R each. 17
 • A digital input 1000 means
that A is connected to a
voltage V and all other
inputs B, C, D are grounded.
• The output voltage 𝑉𝑂 is
𝑉Τ
16
Dept of ECE • Therefore if input varies
from 0001 to 1111 -
>𝑉𝑂 varies from 𝑉Τ16 to V

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 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝑂 = + + +
16 8 4 2

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 Handling of Compact Disc
Compact discs require care in handling. The following
precautions in handling are necessary-
• Do not expose the disc to direct sunlight, high humidity or
high temperature.
• Return the disc to case after use.
• Do not write anything on disc surface.
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• Do not touch the playing surface. Handle by edge
• Wipe off dust with soft cloth
• Wipe in straight motion from centre to edge.
• Don’t use any chemical or fluid for cleaning the disc.

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 Geometry of Audio Disc
• The disc is always played from inside to outside and
rotates counter clockwise and operates at constant linear
velocity.
• Since the inner tracks have lesser lengths as compared to
outer tracks, the angular velocity of disc must change
continuously, during its operation.
Dept of ECE • The disc is read by a laser beam focused on its signal
surface from the underside.
• The pitted surface is covered with a layer of evaporated
aluminium to increase its reflecting power.

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 • The laser beam passes through the polycarbonate plastic
base and hits either a flat or a pit.
• This plastic has an index of reflection n = 1.5 and GaAlAs
laser used has an IR output with λ = 0.78 μm in air. The
light reflected from pit would be shifted by λൗ2 i.e. 180° as
compared to light reflected from flat.

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 • This reflected beam is summed with the incident beam.
The reflected beam from flats would be in phase with
incident beam and would interfere with the incident beam
constructively.
• The reflected beam from pits would be 180° out of phase
with the incident beam and interfere with it destructively.
• A photoconductor translates the variation in light intensity
Dept of ECE into a digital pulse train.

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 • The nominal linear velocity of disc is 1.3 m/s with 1.4 m/s
and 1.2 m/s as the maximum and minimum values.
• The innermost track of CD has radius of 25 mm and the
outermost track has a radius of 58 mm.
• The angular velocity varies from 500 rpm at the innermost
track to 200 rpm at the outermost track.
• The spacing between centres of adjacent tracks is called
pitch and is 1.6 μm.
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• The pits along each track may have lengths varying from
0.9 μm and 3.3 μm.

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 Encoding Process and Error Correction
• The upper end of audio frequency spectrum is at 20kHz.
Therefore a CD is designed for an upper frequency of 20kHz.
Digital sampling must be done at over twice this frequency.
• A frequency of 44.1 kHz has been established for sampling.
• Each digitized sample is 16 bits wide.
• As there are 44100 samples/second, the number of bits/second
Dept of ECE = 44.1* 103 *16 *2 = 1.4112∗ 106 bits/second.
• The factor of 2 arise because we have two channels (right and
left and each channel is digitized separately).
• Each sample produces 32 bits (16 bits for each channel) and the
sample time is 1/44100 = 22.7 μs.

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 first error counter
• It measure is to arrange 32 bits in alternating sequence. The 16 bits of
left channel data are followed by 16 bits of right channel data.
• The sampling process is repeated 6 times which requires 22.7 x 6 =
136.2 μs of time and produces 32 x 6 = 192 bits of audio data. This
audio content is called a frame.
• These 192 bits are arranged in groups of 8 bits called as a byte.
• The pattern of these 24 symbols (each of 8 bits giving a total of 192
bits for 24 symbols) is
𝑆𝑅1𝐴 𝑆𝑅1𝐵 𝑆𝐿1𝐴 𝑆𝐿1𝐵 𝑆𝑅2𝐴 𝑆𝑅2𝐵 𝑆𝐿2𝐴 𝑆𝐿2𝐵 𝑆𝑅3𝐴 𝑆𝑅3𝐵 𝑆𝐿3𝐴 𝑆𝐿3𝐵
𝑆𝑅4𝐴 𝑆𝑅4𝐵 𝑆𝐿4𝐴 𝑆𝐿4𝐵 𝑆𝑅5𝐴 𝑆𝑅5𝐵 𝑆𝐿5𝐴 𝑆𝐿5𝐵 𝑆𝑅6𝐴 𝑆𝑅6𝐵 𝑆𝐿6𝐴 𝑆𝐿6𝐵
Dept of ECE Where S means symbol, subscripts R and L refers to right and left
channel, subscripts 1 to 6 refer to the number of samples, A refers MSB,
B refers LSB.

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 second error counter
• It measure is to delay all the symbols whose second subscript
is even and to scramble the order of the symbols.
• The analog data arrives at encoder in frames of 24 byes.
• Thus the even bytes in this operation are those which arrived
two frames earlier.
• The new arrangement of symbols is

Dept of ECE 𝑆𝑅1𝐴 𝑆𝑅1𝐵 𝑆𝑅3𝐴 𝑆𝑅3𝐵 𝑆𝑅5𝐴 𝑆𝑅5𝐵 𝑆𝐿1𝐴 𝑆𝐿1𝐵 𝑆𝐿3𝐴 𝑆𝐿3𝐵 𝑆𝐿5𝐴 𝑆𝐿5𝐵
𝑆𝑅2𝐴 𝑆𝑅2𝐵 𝑆𝑅4𝐴 𝑆𝑅4𝐵 𝑆𝑅6𝐴 𝑆𝑅6𝐵 𝑆𝐿2𝐴 𝑆𝐿2𝐵 𝑆𝐿4𝐴 𝑆𝐿4𝐵 𝑆𝐿6𝐴 𝑆𝐿6𝐵

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 third error counter
• The third error counter measure is to add a group of 4
parity bits into the above data stream at the mid point of
the frame.

fourth error counter

• It measure is known as cross interleaving.
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• Each of the 28 symbols leaving the encoder is subjected to
a further delay of n.D where 0 ≤n ≤27 and D is equal to
four frame times.
• Thus data of one frame is spread out so that its parts are
found in every fourth one of 112 consecutive frames.

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 fifth error counter
• It measure to add 4 more parity bytes to the end of the
arrangement. Thus total number of parity bytes is 8.
• The addition of these 8 parity bytes requires an increase of
bit rate from 1.4112*106 bits/sec to (1.4112*106 )(32Τ24)
= 1.8816*106 bits/sec by increasing clock frequency.
• These two sets of parity bytes are capable of correcting for
the loss of audio data due to damage or defect in the disc.
Dept of ECE

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 sixth error counter
• It measure is a one symbol interleave. This spreads the
encoded symbols over two frames reducing the effect of
random errors.
• C and D byte (Control and Display) DAD stands for
digitizied audio data

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 • The CD player produces a logic 1 only when the laser beam
moves from a pit to a flat or vice-versa. The lower limit on the
length of pit or flat is 3 bit.
• The resolution of laser beam at the signal surface imposes a
requirement that logic 0 (or logic 1) must always persist for 3
bit times.
• Moreover the CD player uses a PCM from the disc to
reconstruct the clock signal. It is necessary that logic 1 (or 0)
cannot persist for longer than 11 bit times. These requirements
Dept of ECE cannot be met by bytes having 8 bits only. In 8 bits, the
information can change from 00000000 to 11111111 only.
• It is essential to change the bytes into another code to meet the
above requirements. This change is called EFM (eight to
fourteen modulation). Thus each word would consist of not 8
bits but 14 bits to make total number of possible values are 214
= 16384.
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 • Further it is essential to add merging bits between bytes.
• These merging bits are needed for two reasons -
1. The use of 14 bit words ensures that there will never be less than 3
or more than 11 consecutive bits which are equal. However, it is
not assured that these forbidden patterns will not occur when
going from one word to the next.
2. The transformed code should not have any dc component. A dc
component affects the accuracy of EFM recovery.
• To get over the first problem we add two more bits and to get over
Dept of ECE the second one we add one more bit. Thus each 14 bit EFM word is
appended by 3 merging bits and we have words of 17 bits each.
• The complete frame has 33 words of 17 bits each or a total of 561
bits. Lastly each frame is prefaced by 24 bit frame sync word and the
3 merging bits. The sync word is a bit pattern which does not occur
anywhere else in the frame. Thus it is recognized as frame sync. The
total number of bits now 561 + 24+ 3 = 588 bits.

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 • The 588 bits have to be accommodated is 136.2 μs interval.
The original bit rate (for 192 bits) was 1.4112 MHz. The
new bit rate is (588/192)(1.4112) MHz or 4.3218 MHz.
• Therefore, the standard clock frequency in CD player is
4.3218 MHz. It is evident that out of the total area only the
fraction 192/588 or 32.7% is used for audio signal. The
remaining 67.3% is the overhead.
Dept of ECE

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