NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT

MODULE CODE:CCT G4103

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
 INTRODUCTION
Definition : A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical,
Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that
function together as a system.
It performs the following three operations in sequence.
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.
Data : It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.
Ex : Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order.
Information : It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.
Ex : When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average marks are
calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Program : Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.
Advantages of computers :

1. High speed : Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human
beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any instruction
stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically ( which
increases the productivity).
5. Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy without
getting tired.
6. Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness : Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby
reducing costs.
Limitations of computers :
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions
are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.

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Generations of computers :

Generation Component used

First Generation Vacuum tubes
(1946-1954 )
Second Generation Transistors
(1955-1965)
Third Generation Integrated Circuits (IC)
(1968-1975 )
Fourth Generation Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
( 1976-1980) (VLSI)
Fifth Generation Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)
(1980 – till today ) Micro Processor (SILICON CHIP)

1. First Generation (1940s-1950s): These computers used vacuum tubes for processing. They were
large, expensive, consumed a lot of power, and generated significant heat. Examples include the
ENIAC and UNIVAC.

2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s): This era saw the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes,
making computers smaller, faster, more reliable, and more energy-efficient. They were still large
and primarily used by businesses and governments.

3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s): Integrated circuits (ICs) replaced transistors, reducing the size
of computers further and making them more powerful. This era also saw the development of
operating systems and programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN.

4. Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s): Microprocessors were introduced, allowing for the creation of
smaller, more affordable, and more powerful computers. Personal computers (PCs) became
available during this period, leading to their widespread use in homes and businesses.

5. Fifth Generation (1980s-Present): This generation focuses on parallel processing, artificial

intelligence (AI), and advanced programming languages. It involves advancements in areas like
neural networks, robotics, natural language processing, and expert systems. The aim is to
develop machines capable of reasoning and learning.

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 ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS
The computer system consists of three units:
1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output device

Block diagram of a Computer :

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Memory unit

INPUT DEVICE ALU

OUT PUT DEVICE

Control Unit

The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

Unit Function
1. Input device : Reads information from input media and enters to the
computer in a coded form
2. CPU

(a) Memory unit : Stores program and data

(b) Arithmetic Logic unit : Performs arithmetic and logical functions
(c) Control Unit : Interprets program instructions and controls the input and
output devices
3. Output device : decodes information and presents it to the user

Central Processing Unit: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the
―brain‖ of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
and control unit.

(a). Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program
instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output
device. It consists of thousands of cells called ―storage locations‖. These cells activate with ―off-on‖
or binary digits(0,1) mechanism. Thus a character either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string
of (0,1) Binary digits ( BITS). These bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations.

(b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit(ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female are performed. Once data are
fed into the main memory from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to ALU where
processing takes place. No process occurs in primary storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU

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are temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may move from primary memory to
ALU and back again to storage many times before the process is finalized.

(c).Control Unit : It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored
correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are selected
from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a system .

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 Input Devices
Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices.
Some important input devices are
Key board, Mouse, Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone etc.
1. Keyboard: The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard
Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The
most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.
There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as :

• Alphanumeric keys , including letters & numbers.

• Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double
quotes (‗,‖)

• Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END etc.

2.. Mouse: It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have 2
buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel between the
left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of information. As we
move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction. Optical mouse is another
advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot
be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the options on the screen.

3. Scanner: : It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into
digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered separately
resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types: i) optical scanners ii) MICR

i) Optical scanners:
a. Optical character Recognition(OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of a light. This is
used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.
b. Optical mark recognition(OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or
absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude tests.
c. Optical barcode recognition(OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar
codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is used in super markets, book
shops etc.
ii. MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the computer to recognize
characters printed using magnetic ink.
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4. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR): : It is a character recognition technology used
primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of the cheques. MICR characters ( cheque
No., Acc.No.etc) are printed in special ink usually containing iron oxide. When a document that
contains the ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine which magnetizes the ink and there will
be a reader sorter unit which translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR provides a
secure, high speed of scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600 cheques/min.

Output devices

Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an Output device.
Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the desired form.

Some important Output devices are : Monitor, Printer

1 .Terminal/Monitor: It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour – and
it displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit(VDU). Several types of monitors are in
use. Some of them are Colour Graphic Adapter(CGA), Enhanced Graphics Adaptor(EGA) , Video
Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).
The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters. Most
systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or horizontally on the
screen.

2 . Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained
from a printer is often referred as ―printout‖. The different printers and their speeds are as follows:
S. No. Type Mode of Printing Speed
1 Dot – Matrix Prints the character in dotted pattern 200/300 to 700
printer through printer ribbon using either 24 CPS
pin or 9 pin
2 Ink Jet printer Work by spraying ionized ink Slow, 90 CPS
3 Laser printer Also called page printer. Uses laser 6 to 12 PPM
beam to produce an image.
4 Line printer Prints lines at a time instead of single 300 to 600 LPM
characters.
5 Plotter Produces drawings or graphs through
pens which are filled with different
colours.
( CPS: Characters Per Second; PPM: Pages Per Minutes; LPM : Lines Per Minute)

Laser printer

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 MEMORY OF THE COMPUTER
Memory or storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer. Any storage
unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of the following criteria:

1. Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the storage unit in
response to program instructions.

2. Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

3. Cost per bit of storage.

Units of memory: The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0,1) mechanism.
Thus the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0,1). To store a character, a computer requires 8
bits or 1 byte. This is called the ― word length‖ of the storage unit. Hence the storage capacity of the
computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is expressed in terms of bytes. The
different units of measurement are

8 Bits = 1 Byte

210 (or) 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)

210 (or)1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)

210 (or)1024 MB = 1 Gega Byte (GB)

Conversion :

ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

This code has given alphabets like some numbers which can be converted to Binary form.
A- 65 …….Z – 90 and a – 97 ............... z – 121
By using these codes the alphabets can be converted to digital & hence to Binary form.
Types of Memory : A computer memory is of two types
1. Primary Memory ( Internal storage) 2. Secondary Memory ( External storage)

Primary Memory : Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part of a
computer. It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled
instantly and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading
or storing information. Primary memory is further classified into two types:

Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read- Only Memory (ROM )

RAM:
RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written onto it. RAM is
a place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs and the data. The CPU can
directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. However, the storage of data and instructions in
RAM is temporary, till the time the computer is running. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power
to the computer is switched off. i.e it is volatile memory.

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 ROM:
It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or changed onto
ROM. ROM is the ‗built-in‘ memory of a computer. It stores some basic input – output instructions put
by the manufacturer to operate the computer. The storage of data and instructions in ROM is permanent.
It does not depend on the power supply. i.e it is non-volatile memory.

Secondary memory: The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not
sufficient for large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the ―auxiliary‖ or ―secondary
memory‖ is used. It is also referred as ―backup storage‖ as it is used to store large volume of data on a
permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever required for processing.
Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main (primary memory) storage.
Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and Flash
drive.

A Solid-State Drive (SSD) is a storage device that uses flash memory to store data, unlike traditional Hard
Disk Drives (HDDs) that use spinning magnetic disks. SSDs have no moving parts, which makes them
faster, more durable, and more power-efficient compared to HDDs.SSDs are made of interconnected
flash-memory chips that retain data even when there's no power.

1.
Hard Disk: A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a traditional storage device used in computers and other
electronic devices to store and retrieve digital information. It consists of one or more rigid disks coated
with magnetic material that rapidly rotate while an actuator arm with a read/write head accesses data on
the disk's surface.

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2. CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk–Read Only Memory. It is used to store a wide variety
of information. Its main advantage is that it is portable and can hold a large amount of data.. The storage
capacity of most CD-ROMs is approximately 650 MB or 700 MB.
CD-ROMs have the following variations:
(i) CD-R(Compact disc Recordable): Data can be written onto it just once. The stored data can be read.
Data once written onto it cannot be erased.
(ii) CD-RW(Compact disc Rewritable): It is also called erasable CD. Data once written onto it can be
erased to write or record new information many times.
To use a CD-ROM, a device called CD drive is needed.

3. DVD: DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can store
larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7MB. DVDs that can store up to
17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are generally used to store a very large
multimedia presentations and movies that combine high quality sound and graphics.

4. Flash Drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer data. Due to
its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive. We can read, write, copy,
delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen drive to computer. It comes in various storage
capacities of 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to use and small enough to be carried
in a pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the computer and the computer automatically
detects this device.

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 HARDWARE and SOFTWARE

Hardware: The physical components of the computer are known as ―Hardware‖. It refers to the objects
that we can actually touch.
Ex: input and output devices, processors, circuits and the cables.

Software: Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a desired
way. The basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the same as that exists between
TV and TV studio. Without TV studio (software) from where the programs are telecast, the TV
(Hardware) is a dead machine.

There are five categories of software. They are:

1. Operating System 2. Translators 3. Utility programs 4. Application programs

5. General purpose programs

1. Operating System (OS) : The software that manages the resources of a computer system and
schedules its operation is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface between
the hardware and the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs.

Generally the OS acts as an interface between the user and the Hardware of the computer.

i.e It is a bridge between the user and the Hardware.

The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.
CLI – Command Line Interface
GUI -- Graphical user Interface
CLI : It is operated with keyboard only. Ex: MS-DOS, UNIX
GUI : The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard. Ex: Windows 95, Windows XP etc

• Disk Operating System (DOS): It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates at the age of
19. It is suited for personal computers. Dos is a single user and single task operating system

• WINDOWS : It works with DOS and it supports single user and multitask system. It
requires a powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB .

• UNIX AND XENIX: It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system

2. Translators : Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in their own
language – the machine language . Therefore, a program written in any other language should be
translated into machine language. The software that ―translates‖ the instructions of different
languages is known as translators .
There are two types of translators. They are compilers and Interpreters
A Compiler checks the entire user – written program (known as the source program) and if it is
error free, produces a complete program in machine language (known as object program). The source
program is retained for possible modifications and corrections and the object program is loaded into the
computer for execution. If the source program contains errors, the compilers produce a list of errors at
the end of the execution of the program. i.e a compiler translates the whole program before execution.

An interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter translates one statement
at a time and if it is error – free, executes. This continues till the last statement. Thus an interpreter
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translates or executes the first instruction before it goes to the second, while a compiler translates the
whole program before execution.

The major difference between compiler and interpreter is

1. Error correction is very much simpler in the case of interpreter as it translates the
statements in stages. The compiler produces an error list of the entire program at the end.
2. Interpreter takes more time for the execution of the program compared to compilers as it
translates one statement at a time

Programming Languages: There are three types of programming languages.

1. Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language. This language is in terms of
binary codes (0,1). i.e. all programs should be written with these codes, which is difficult, time
consuming and leading to errors while writing the programs. There is no unique standard
machine language. Rather there are many machine languages. These are machine dependent.
These are referred as the first generation languages.

2. Assembly Languages : It uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes (as in machine
languages). Ex. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition. It requires translators to convert into
machine language. Like machine language, writing program in assembly language is also time
consuming. These are also machine dependent.

3. High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented languages (POL). These
are referred as third generation languages. The advantages of these languages are

• The high level languages are convenient for writing programs as they can be written without
any codes. These languages follow rules like ―English‖ language.

• Because of their English like nature, less time is required to write a program.

• They are machine independent. A program written in any HLL can be run on computers of
different types without any modifications.

Several High Level Languages which are in common use:

C/C++
JAVA
BASIC : Beginner‘s All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
PROLOG: PROgramming in LOGic
ALGOL : ALGOrithmic Language
3. Utility Programs: These are pre-written programs supplied by the manufacturer for maintaining day
to day activities of computer system.

Example: COPY, SORT, MAILING, virus scanning software etc.,

4. Application Programs: These are user written programs to do a specific job which can be changed to
meet the individual needs. These programs are written in different languages such as BASIC or C or by
using database packages like dBASE, Oracle.

Example: Payroll, Billing, Railway Reservation etc.

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 5. General Purpose Packages: These packages are developed to suit the needs of research workers /
scientists in different fields. These packages are categorized as :

i) Data Analysis ii) Word Processing iii) Spread Sheet iv) Graphics and v) Databases

Data Analysis
Ex: SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science),
MSTAT, MICROSTAT, GENSTAT, SAS etc.
Word Processing
Ex: WORD PERFECT, WORDSTAR, MS-Word, CHIRATOR, NORTON EDITOR etc.

Spread Sheet
Ex: LOTUS, Qpro, VP-PLANNER, SYMPHONY, MS-Excel etc.
Graphics
Ex: LOTUS, STORY-BOARD, POWER-POINT etc.
Databases
Ex: dBASE, FOX-BASE, FOX-PRO, ORACLE, MS-Access etc.

Operating system (OS) is software that acts as an intermediary between computer hardware and software
applications, managing computer hardware resources and providing services for computer programs. It's the
fundamental software that enables users to interact with the computer and other software.

1. Windows Operating Systems (Microsoft Windows): Developed by Microsoft, Windows operating

systems are widely used on personal computers, laptops, and servers. Versions include Windows 10,
Windows 11, and various editions like Windows Server for server environments.
2. macOS: Developed by Apple Inc., macOS is the operating system designed for Apple's Mac
computers. It's known for its user-friendly interface, integration with other Apple devices, and features
like Siri and iCloud.
3. Linux Operating Systems: Linux is an open-source operating system kernel that powers various
distributions (distros) like Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, and CentOS. Linux is widely used in servers,
desktops, and embedded systems due to its flexibility, stability, and customization options.
4. iOS: Developed by Apple for its mobile devices like iPhones, iPads, and iPod Touch, iOS is a mobile
operating system known for its security features, user interface, and integration with Apple's
ecosystem.
5. Android: Developed by Google, Android is a mobile operating system based on the Linux kernel. It's
used in a vast range of smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, TVs, and other devices, known for its
customization, flexibility, and vast app ecosystem through the Google Play Store.

Functions of Operating System :

Today most operating systems perform the following important functions :

1. Processor management : It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being

performed by the computer system.

2. Memory management : It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage areas to the
system programmes as well as user programmes and data.

3. Input / Output management : It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different Input and
Output devices while one or more programmes are executed.

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4. File management : It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text
editors or some other file manipulation routines.

5. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system : It determines and maintains the order in
which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.

6. Interpretation of commands and instructions.

7. Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator.

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 Classification of Computers

Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for which they
are developed. These can be classified into three types:

1. Analog Computes 2. Digital Computers 3. Hybrid Computers

1. Analog computers: They operate by ―measuring‖ instead of ―counting‖. The name (derived
from greek word analog) denotes that the computer functions by establishing similarities between
the two quantities. They are powerful tools for solving differential equations.

2. Digital Computers: These computers operate by ―counting‖. All quantities are expressed as
discrete digits or numbers. These are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data.

3. Hybrid Computers: Computers which combine the features of analog and digital computers are
known as Hybrid computers.
A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. These computers were essentially developed
for computations. Later, the developments in the computers led to the use of digital computers in
variety of applications. Depending on the use of applications, the digital computers are classified
into 1) Special Purpose Computers and 2) General Purpose Computers

1. Special Purpose Computers: These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of the areas
where these computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning, traffic
signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.,

2. General Purpose Computers: These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such
as simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers
are available in different sizes and capabilities and are further classified (based on memory,
speed, storage) as follows.

a) Super Computers b) Mainframe Computers c) Mini Computers d) Micro Computers

a) Super Computers: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds
which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale
numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather
forecasting etc.,. The first super computer was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY
computers. In India the indigenous super computer was developed under the name
Param.
b) Mainframe Computers: They also have large storage and high computing speed (but
relatively lower than the super computers). They are used in applications like weather
forecasting, space applications etc., they support a large number of terminals for use by a
variety of users simultaneously, but are expensive
c) Mini Computers: It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available
indigenously and used for large volume applications. It can serve multi-users
simultaneously

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d) Micro Computers: A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system.
Micro computers are also referred as ―personal computers‖(PC). These are self
contained units and usually developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked
to very large systems. They are cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for
variety of applications from small to medium range. These are available in three models:

1. PC : Personal Computer
2. PC-XT : PC with Extended Technology
3. PC-AT : PC with Advanced Technology

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 PERSONAL COMPUTERS
Personal Computer: A personal computer has a Monitor, a keyboard , Disk Drive (s), printer and
CPU. The CPU of PC has a mother board with several chips mounted on a circuit board. The major
components of the circuit board are : Microprocessor, RAM and ROM chips and other supporting
circuits.

Microprocessor: The Microprocessor chip is like a brain of human being which contains circuits and
registers to perform arithmetic, logic and control functions. i.e it contains ALU & CU. These chips will
be able to retrieve data from the input output devices, store, manipulate and process a byte of data at a
time. There is an address bus which is built into these chips to determine the storage locations (of
RAM) of the data and the instructions of the program.

Over the years, different microprocessors were developed and the first in the series is INTEL
8080. The other procesors are 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium I, II, III and Pentium 4. The Pentium
4 can execute any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but it does it about 5000 times faster.

Clock Speed: The speed with which the instruction is executed or number of pulses per second is called
the clock speed. It is measured in terms of million pulses per second (MHZs).

The following table gives the differences among the different processors that intel has introduced over
the years :

S.No. Microprocessor Date Transistors Clock speed Data width

1 8080 1974 6000 2MHZ 8 bits
2 8088 1979 29,000 5 MHZ 16 bits
8-bit bus
3 80286 1982 134,000 6 MHZ 16 bits
4 80386 1985 275,000 16 MHZ 32 bits
5 80486 1989 1,200,000 25 MHZ 32 bits
6 Pentium I 1993 3,100,000 60 MHZ 32 bits
64-bit bus
7 Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 233 MHZ 32 bits
64-bit bus
8 Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 450 MHZ 32 bits
64-bit bus
9 Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 1.5 GHZ 32 bits
64-bit bus
10 Pentium 4 2004 125,000,000 3.6 GHZ 32 bits
―Prescott‖ 64-bit bus

Peripherals: The input, output and secondary storage units like floppy drives, keyboard, mouse, etc., are called
peripherals.
Classification of PCs: PCs are mainly classified on the basis of primary memory (RAM), Microprocessor, clock
speed and peripherals. The classification is presented in the following table:

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 Working with personal computers

Booting of the Computer: Booting imply ―activating‖ the computer for working. Thus, when the
computer is switched on, the operating system residing in the floppy or in the hard disk is transferred
into the primary memory.

Booting is essential whenever the system is locked or switched-off. A PC can be booted through

two ways: a) Cold Booting b) Warm Booting.

a) Cold Booting: It is only switching OFF the system and after some time again switching ON.

b) Warm Booting: It is carried out by pressing the following three keys simultaneously :

Ctrl + Alt + Del. It is preferable to cold booting as it safeguards the system from sudden power

fluctuations resulting out of switching ON and OFF the system.

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 MS-DOS
MS-DOS is a collection of programs and other files. It is a single user and single programming
environment.
MS-DOS is designed to provide a method of organizing and using the information stored on disks,
application programs, system programs and the computer itself.

Files and File names: A file is a collection of related information. The files should have suitable names
for their identification in later use.
Rules for naming the files:
1. File names should be of one to eight characters in length with an option of one to three character
extension
2. File names can include any one of the following characters:
A to Z (or a to z) 0 to 9, $, &, #, @. %, ( ), { }
The characters which are not allowed are:
:, ; + / \ * as these have special meaning
3. A period (.) is used to separate the first part of a file name from the extension. (LETTER.TXT,
RAMA.WK1, etc.,)
4. When a file name includes an extension, it should be referred along with its extension and not
only with the first part
5. Reserved devices names are not allowed. (COMMAND.COM, DATE, etc.,

Computer viruses and Vaccines:

Def: A VIRUS is a set of instructions (or program) or software prepared to destroy a package and
data.

A virus kills data and program files. Although the purpose for developing such softwares is not
known, they appear to be basically developed for a check against the ―piracy‖ of program packages.

Functioning of viruses: viruses reside in executable files such as .COM or .EXE. Thus when PC is
switched on, the virus enters the RAM through .COM (COMMAND.COM) file and starts
destructive work of killing data and program files. Whenever the PC is switched off, they again go
back to the executable files.

More than 1000 computer viruses have been identified. They are classified as :

i) File Allocation Table (FAT) based viruses ii )Key board viruses and
ii) File based viruses
Some of the well known viruses are:

Trojan Horse,Worm,S p y w a r e , R a n s o m w a r e

VACCINE: It is a software developed for removing the viruses.

In DOS version, there are in-built programs to guard against computer viruses. These are
anti-virus programs for both DOS and WINDOWS and a memory resident virus-safe program that
guards against the introduction of files that may be affected by virus.

Some of the anti-virus vaccines are: NASHSOFT, UTSCAN, AVG, AVIRA, Meccaf etc.

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 WINDOWS FILE EXPLORER
File Explorer is an application that provides detailed information about your files, folders, and drives.
You can use it to see how your files are organized and to copy, move, and rename files, as wellas
perform other tasks pertaining to files, folders, and drives.

Explorer uses the directory windows to graphically display the directory structure of your disk and files.
Windows Explorer displays the contents of the entire system in a hierarchical manner.

To open Windows Explorer, click Start → All programs → Accessories → Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer is divided into 2 panes. The left pane displays the list of drives & folders on the
computer. The right pane displays the contents of the selected drive or folder. By using these two panes,
you can browse through the contents of your computer in a single window. Folder is a list of files
(similar to Directory in MS-DOS)

Working with Folders:

Creating a Folder:
1. From the tree pane : select the directory under which you want to create a sub directory.
2. Choose File→New→Folder. On the right pane of the screen, a new folder is created.
3. Type in the name of the directory and press ENTER. You can notice the change in the tree
structure immediately.

Creating files:
After creating a folder, we can move files into it or create new files within the folder.
Selecting files & folders:
i) To select all the files in a folder:

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 Click the folder in the left pane → All the files will be displayed in the right pane.
To select all --→CTRL + A
ii) To select consecutive files:
Use shift key + arrow keys
iii) To select non-consecutive files:
• In the right pane of Windows Explorer, click the first item to be selected.
• Hold down CTRL
• Click all other items that need to be selected.

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Copying Files & Folders:
Once we select the files to be copied, the next step is to copy the files.
To copy the files & folders:
i) In Windows Explorer, select the file or folder to be copied.
ii) On the edit menu click copy
( the files are copied to the clip board. The clip board is a location where the information you
copy or cut is temporarily stored)
iii) Click the destination folder in the left pane.
iv) In W.Exp, click paste in the Edit menu.

Alternatively, to copy a file or folder, select it and then press ctrl +C. To paste, press ctrl+ V

To move the files or folders:

i) select the folder to be moved.
ii) On the edit menu, click cut
iii) Click the destination folder in the left pane
iv) On the edit menu, click paste.
Alternatively, to cut a file or folder, select and press ctrl +X & then to paste, press ctrl +V.
Renaming files or folders:
i) Select the item to be renamed
ii) Choose File → Rename
iii) Current name gets selected, Type in the new name
iv) Press Enter.
Deleting files or folders:
If you do not want certain files or folders, you can delete them. All the files & folders which are
deleted are moved to the recycle bin.
To delete:
i) Select
ii) On the file menu, click delete or press delete.
A warning appears prompting you to confirm the file deletion.
iii) If you want to delete, click yes otherwise No.
Note: To delete a file permanently without moving it to the Recycle bin, select the file & then press
Shift+ Del.

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