CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This aspect of the project outlines the methodology and procedure adopted in
executing the aim of the project with a view of achieving the best of result by
considering several predisposing factors.

3.2 CHOICE OF PLATFORM

Although the advances in technology has found its way into the surveying
profession. processing of some data are still done manually. This manual
computations waste time and incorporates errors. To remove this setback or delay in
processing time of survey data, computer programming can be adapted to automate
tasks by writing codes to perform these routines. The MATLAB software is the chosen
language for the implementation of the program.

MATLAB is chosen as the programming language for the implementation of the

automated procedures because of its core functionality that is naturally suited for
surveying computations. The MATLAB software provides a platform that supports;
array/matrix based operations, aesthetically pleasing visualization and is also
accompanied with toolboxes that provide functionality for more advanced
applications.

MATLAB can be used to combine mathematical computations with text and graphics in
order to produce a polished, integrated, interactive document. (Hunt, B. et al.,
2001)

According to (Ekene, A. C., 2014) advantages of MATLAB over other languages

include:

Its basic data element is the matrix. A simple integer is considered a matrix of
one row and one column.

The graphical output is optimized for interaction and is aesthetically pleasing.

MATLAB's functionality can be expanded by the addition of toolboxes. These are sets
of specific functions that provide more specialized functionality.

3.3 PROGRAM DESIGN

A computer program is a sequence of instruction written to perform specified task

with a computer (Stair and M., R., 2003).

Programming involves activities such as analysis, developing understanding.

generating algorithms, verification of requirements of algorithms including their
correctness and resources consumption, and implementation (commonly referred to as
coding) of algorithms in a target programming language. (Ekene, A. C., 2014)

Programming is the implementation of an algorithm. Algorithms are precise sequences

of comprehensible operations, performable by an automatic instrument..

The following are step by step processes used to design the program. (Odumosu, J.
O. et al., 2014)

Analyze: This defines the problem statement and provides a clear idea of what data
(or input) are given and the relationship between the input and the desired output.
(Schneider. D. I.. 1995)

Design: Plan the solution to the problem. Find a logical sequence of precise steps
that solve the problem. Such a sequence of steps is called an algorithm. Planning
also involves using representative data to test the logic of the algorithm by hand
to ensure that it is correct. At this stage, decision variables are decided.

Choose the interface: Select the objects (text boxes, command buttons, etc.).
Determine how the input will be obtained and how the output will be displayed. Then
create objects to receive the input and display the output. Also, create
appropriate command buttons to allow

the user to control the program. The designer will reason along on how the various
parameters are to be entered in to the system in a system recognizable format that
will satisfy the purpose and still provide the required result correctly.

Code: Translate the algorithm into a programming language. Coding is the technical
word for writing the program. During this stage, the program is written in Visual
Basic and entered into the computer. The programmer uses the algorithm devised in
Design stage along with knowledge of Visual Basic. Appropriate codes are used to
represent the various mathematical and logical formulae involved in the task. At
this stage, necessary precautions were taken to ensure that negative conditions are
properly taken care of and divisions by zero are avoided.

Test and debug: Locate and remove any errors in the program. Testing is the process
of finding errors in a program, and debugging is the process of correcting errors
that are found.

Complete the documentation: Organize all the material that describes the program.
Documentation is intended to allow another person or the programmer at a later
date, to understand the program. Internal documentation consists of statements in
the program that are not executed, but point out the purposes of various parts of
the program.

3.4 TRAVERSE

In traversing. Angles and distances are measured; they are used to compute Bearings
and Coordinates. Given the coordinates of the first station and the bearing of the
first line, the co- ordinates of all successive points can be calculated. (Odumosu,
J. O. et al., 2014)

D odot

A10.00, 0.00)

Figure 3-1 Traverse

3.4.1 FORWARD COMPUTATION Back computation of control

Change in Easting and Change in Northing

E_{f} - E_{t} = Delta*E

N_{f} - N_{i} = Delta*N

Distance computation
L = sqrt(Delta * E ^ 2 + Delta * N ^ 2)

Bearing computation

alpha = arctan((Delta*E)/(Delta*N))

Where are initial coordinates of opening controls

E_{f} N_{f} are final coordinates of opening controls

1. is the length of traverse line

AE, AN are changes in Easting and Northing also known as Departure and Latitude

a is the Back bearing of Control line

Bearing reduction

o Forward bearing computation

FB = BB + OA

Where FB is the Forward bearing

BB is the Backward bearing

OA is the Observed Angle

Correction to bearing

Correction Bearing = Computed bearing - derived bearing

Computation of departure and latitude

Delta E AB =L*SIN propto AB

Delta N AB =L*COS alpha AB

Coordinate computation

E B =E A + Delta E AB

N B =N A + Delta N AB

Corrected coordinates

E = Ec + δε

NN + SN

3.4.1.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Below are various steps involved in the design and subsequently the implementation
of this program.

3.4.1.1.1 ALGORITHM
Start

Input coordinates opening control stations

Compute backward bearing of Control line

Input observed angles and distances

Compute Forward bearing FB, from Backward bearing and observed angles, of all
traverse lines.

Correct forward bearing.

Compute Departure AE and latitude AN.

Select method of correction.

Compute final Coordinates of traverse stations.

Send result to a file..

End

3.4.1.1.2 FLOW CHART

Start

Compute Bearing of line connecting contri

Input X,Y,Z of Control points /

Input value of observed angles and distances /

Compute Forward bearing

Compute angular misclosure

Correct forvant bearing

Compute Departure AE. Latitude AN

Compute Final Coordinates

Output Result to text, xlsx or csv file /

End

Figure 3-2 Flow Chart for Forward Computation

3.4.1.1.3 PSEUCODE

Start program

Accept intial and closing set of controls from an input file

Bearing inv_tan((e2-e1)/(n2-n1))
Foward bearing1 +180 = back bearing1

Backbearing1 + observed angle forward bearing 2

Accept angles and distances through an input function

Closure bearing - control bearing error

Corrected forward bearing foward bearing + error stationno/no of stations

Change in easting/northing distance sin/cos(forward bearing(in degrees))

Corrected change in easting change in easting +distance/perimeter sum of change in

easting

Intial coordinates corrected change in eastings/northings+ initial

castings/northings

Output the results in a file

End program

3.4.2 BACK COMPUTATION

Change in Easting and Change in Northing

Εγ - Ε₁ = ΔΕ

N-N = AN

Distance computation

L = AE2 + AN2

Bearing computation

x = tan ΔΕ AN

Where E₁, N, are initial coordinates of opening controls

Es. Ny are final coordinates of opening controls

is the length of traverse line

AE, AN are changes in Easting and Northing also known as Departure and Latitude a
is the Back bearing of Control line

3.4.2.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Below are various steps involved in the design and subsequently the implementation
of this program.

3.4.2.1.1 ALGORITHM

Start

Input coordinates of stations

Compute change in easting and northing from Coordinates

Calculate distances from change in easting and northing

Calculate the bearing of line from change in easting and northing

Stop

3.4.2.1.2 FLOW CHART

Start
二室參割
Stop
Figure 3-3 Flowchart for Back Computation
3.4.2.1.3 PSEUDO CODE
• Start program
• Accept coordinates from input file
• Change in Easting AB = Easting of B - Easting of A
• Change in Northing AB = Northing of B - Northing of A
• Distance = sqrt(Change in Easting 2 + Change in Northing *2)
" Bearing = tan (Change in Easting/ Change in Northing)

• Output results to file

• Stop program
3.5 LEVELING
The process of differential leveling is concerned with the determination of height
differences between particular points, and indirectly, the altitude of points above
or below a reference datum (Lam, S. Y. W., 2000).
Backsight Staff at A
して VE」
Foresight
Staff at B
Horizontal Line of Sight
Нь
Ha
Reference Datum
Figure 3-4 Differential Leveling
3.5.1 DIRECT DIFFERENTIAL
The following terms associated with differential leveling as defined by (Chandra,
A. M.,
2005)
Station: A station is the point where the leveling staff is held.
Height of instrument (H.I.) or height of collimation: For any set up of the level,
the elevation of the line of sight is the height of instrument.
Back sight (B.S.): It is the first reading taken on the staff after setting up the
level usually to determine the height of instrument. It is usually made to some
form of a bench mark (B.M.)

or to the points whose elevations have already been determined. When the instrument
position has to be changed, the first sight taken in the next section is also a
back sight.
Fore sight (F.S.); It is the last reading from an instrument position on to a staff
held at a point. It is thus the last reading taken within a section of levels
before shifting the instrument to the next section, and also the last reading taken
over the whole series of levels.
Change point (C.P.) or turning point: A change point or turning point is the point
where both the fore sight and back sight are made on a staff held at that point. A
change point is required before moving the level from one section to another
section. By taking the fore sight the elevation of the change point is determined
and by taking the back sight the height of instrument is determined.
The change points relate the various sections by making fore sight and back sight
at the same point.
Intermediate sight (I.S.): The term 'intermediate sight' covers all sightings and
consequent staff readings made between back sight and fore sight within each
section. Thus, intermediate sight station is neither the change point nor the last
point.
Balancing of sights: When the distances of the stations where back sight and fore
sight are laken from the instrument station, are kept approximately equal, it is
known as balancing of sights. Balancing of sights minimizes the effect of
instrumental and other errors.
Reduced level (R.): Reduced level of a point is is height or depth above or below
the assumed datum. It is the elevation of the point.
Rise and fall: The difference of level between two consecutive points indicates a
rise or a fall between the two points.

Below is a sequential list of the operations involved and their respective formula.
• Determine height of instrument
H.I = RL + B.S
• Compute Reduced level for next station
RL = H.1 - 1.S/F.S
• Repeat the first two steps for all stations in the network
3.5.1.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
Below are various steps involved in the design and subsequently the implementation
of this program.
3.5.1.1.1 ALGORITHM
• Start
• Input the reduced level opening and closing control
• Input Back sight, Fore sight, and Intermediate sight observations
• Compute Height of instrument
• Compute Height differences
• Compute Reduced level of stations
• Calculate correction
• Distribute Correction
• Compute corrected reduced level
• Stop

3.5.1.1.2 FLOW CHART

Start
團字
Compute Height of Instrument
Compute
Poduced el
→ bite eight
Corecion -
Could
Reduced Level
Stop
Figure 3-5 FlowChart for Differential Leveling
3.5.1.1.3 PSUEDO CODE
• Start program
• Accept initial and closing set of reduced level controls from an input
file
• Accept Backsight, Foresight, and Intermediate sight observations from
an input file.
• Height of instrument = Reduced level - Back sight observation
 • Height difference = Height of instrument - intermediate or fore sight

Reduced level of station = Reduced level of change point + height difference

• Correction = Computed reduced level - derived reduced level
• Corrected Reduced level = reduced level + correction
• End program
3.5.2 TACHEOMETRIC LEVELING
Tacheometry is another common method of determining the reduced level of a point.
This method of survey consists of using a level, theodolite or specially
constructed tacheometer to make cross hair intercept readings on a leveling staff.
As the angle subtended by the crosshairs is known, the distance can be calculated.
U hair
D
Lhair
D
Figure 3-6 Tacheometric Leveling
Below is a sequential list of the operations involved and their respective formulae
• Reduced level of the trunnion axis of the theodolite
RLp = RLs + H.1
• Slope distance
5 = 1100(U - L)sinz|

Horizontal distance
H = S sinz
• Vertical distance computation
• Determination of Reduced level of point
V= Scosz
RLp = RLy+V- M
Where:
RLs is the reduced level of the ground mark at the instrument station
RIp is the reduced level of any point
RLis the reduced level of the trunnion axis of the theodolite
HI is the height of the trunnion axis of the theodolite above the ground mark
U, M and L are the staff readings at the upper stadia hair, the middle hair and the
lower stadia hair respectively
Zis the vertical angle measured from the zenith (usually as read directly from the
theodolite)
3.52.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
352,11 ALGORITHM
• Start
• compute reduced level of the trunnion axis of the theodolite
• compute staff interval
• compute horizontal distance
• compute Vertical distance

• reduced level of point

• Stop
3.5.2.1.2 FLOW CHART
Start ]
Compute reduced level of trunnion
axis ortne theodolite
Compute staff
Compute horizontal distance
Figure 3-7 Flowchart for Tacheometric Leveling
3.5.2.1.3 PSEUDO CODE
• Start program
• Accept reduced level of instrument station from input function
• Accept horizontal and vertical/zenith angle readings at a station from
input file

• Accept Upper, Middle and lower staff readings at station to points from
input function.
• Reduced level of the trunnion axis of the theodolite RII = Reduced
level of instrument station + height of instrument
• Staff interval = Upper staff reading - Lower staff reading
• Horizontal distance = K*staff interval + c
• Vertical distance = horizontal distance* sin(zenith angle)
• Reduced level of point = RLt + Vertical distance - Middle staff reading
• Repeat for each instrument station
• Output results to file
• Stop program

3.6 AREA
Area is considered to be the orthogonal projection of the surface onto a horizontal
plane.
(CHILANI, C. D. and WOLF, P. R., 2012).
Areas enclosed by closed traverses can be computed by using the coordinate method.
(Kavanagh, B. F., 2010).
Below is the formula for calculating area using coordinate method
3.6.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
3.6.1.1 ALGORITHM
• Start
• Input observations
• Compute coordinates
• Calculate Area
• Stop

3.6.1.2 FLOW CHART

Start
Select method of aquiring data or
Coordinate
Input X, Y, Z of
Control point
Use SubRoutine to Compute the Corrected final coordinates
Compute area from final
Coordinates
Stop
Figure 3-8 Flowchart for Area Computation
3.6.1.3 PSUEDO CODE
• Start program
• Accept observations from file
• Calculate coordinates
• Area = abs(Ei*Ni+1 - Ei+|*Ni)/2
• Stop program

3.7 TRIANGULATION
A hamiaon SYacim constis of a scits or joinced or otchaping triang cs in whitch an
ocasional side called as base line, is measured and remaining sides are calculate
from the angles measured at the vertices of the triangles, vertices being the
control points are called as triangulation stations (Chandra, A. M., 2005).
从
4-2
L
5--
Figure 3-9 Triangulation
Below is a sequential list of the operations involved and their respective formulae
• Back computation of control
• Change in Easting and Change in Northing
E 一 E=AE
N, - N; = AN
• Distance computation
L = VAEZ+ ANZ
• Bearing computation
ДЕ
0 = tan'
Where E, N, are initial coordinates of opening controls

E, N, are final coordinates of opening controls

L is the length of traverse line
SE, AN are changes in Easting and Northing also known as Departure and Latitude ©
is the Back bearing of Control line
• Bearing reductiono Forward bearing of first station
• Forward bearing of following stations
a = 180 - 0 + 0A
FB = BB + 0A
Where FB is the Forward bearing
BB is the Backward bearing
OA is the Observed Angle
• Correction to bearingCorrection Bearing = Computed bearing - derived
bearing
• Distance computation
Distance L will be measured on field
L1 = L sin 1/sin3
L2 = L1 sin4/sin6
L3 = L2 sin7/sin9

Departure and latitude

ДЕлв = L * SIN *дв
ANAB = L * COS &AB
• Coordinate computation
Ea=Ea+ AEAB
Ng = N1+ ANAB
• Corrected coordinates
E, = Ec + 8E;
N, = No + SN,
3.7.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
3.7.1.1 ALGORITHM
• Start
• Input coordinates opening control stations
• Compute backward bearing of Control line
 • Input observed angles and first distance L
• Compute Forward bearing FB, from Backward bearing and observed angles,
of all traverse lines.
• Correct forward bearing.
• Compute distance from angle and distance of first line
• Compute Departure AE and latitude AN.
• Select method of correction.
• Compute final Coordinates of traverse stations.
• Send result to a file.
• End

3.71.2 FLOW CHART

Start
Input coordinates of opening control stations
Input observed angles and first distance L
Compute backward bearing of Control line
Correct forward bearing
Compute Forward bearing FB
Compute distance from angle and distance of first line
Compute
departure AE and latitude AN
Compute final
Coordinates of traverse stations
Select method of correction
Send result to a file
Stop
Figure 3-10 Flowchart for Triangulation
3.7.1.3 PSEUDO CODE
• Start program
• Accept intial and closing set of controls from an input file
• Bearing = iny tan(2-el)(n-nl))

• Foward bearing1 +180 = back bearingl

• Backbearing 1 + observed angle = forward bearing 2
• Accept angles and distance L through an input function
• Closure bearing - control bearing = error
• Corrected forward bearing = foward bearing t error*station no/no of
stations
• Distance Li = L* sin(<3i-2/sin(<3i)
• Change in easting/northing = distance * sin/cos(forward bearing(in
degrees))
• Corrected change in easting = change in easting +distance/perimeter*
sum of change in easting
• Intial coordinates = corrected change in eastings/northings + initial
eastings/northings
• Output the results in a file
• End program

3.8 INTERSECTION
This involves sighting in to a point P from known positions. If the bearings of the
rays are used, then using the rays in combinations of two, the coordinates of P can
be obtained.
(Schofield, W. and Breach, M., 2007).
P
Figure 3-11 Intersection
The formula for computing the coordinates of a point from resection is as below
cot a + cot B
N, = BA - Bo + N, CO CP + Ng cot a
cot a + cot B
3.8.1 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
3.8.1.1 ALGORITHM
• Start
• Input coordinates of first known point
• Input observed angle measured at first known point
• Input coordinates of first known point
• Input observed angle measured at first known point

• Compute easting of point using formula

• Compute easting of point using formula
• End
3.8.1.2 FLOW CHART
Start
Input
Coordinates of first known point
Input observed angle measured at first known point
Input observed angle measured at first known point
Input
Coordinates of first known point
Compute Easting and Nothing of point using formula
Stop
Figure 3-12 Flowchart for Intersection
3.8.1.3 PSEUDO CODE
• Start the program
• Accept coordinates of first known point from a text box
• Accept observed angle a measured at first known point from a text box
• Accept coordinates of second known point from a text box
• Accept observed angle measured at second known point from a text box

• Change in Easting between control dE = Easting of second control -

Easting of firstcontrol
• Change in Northing between control dN= Northing of second control -
Northing offirst control
• A = Easting of first control * angle observed from second control
• B = Easting of second control * angle observed from first control
• C = Northing of first control * angle observed from second control
• D = Northing of second control * angle observed from first control
• Easting of unknown point = (dN + A + B)/(cota + cotß)
• Northing of unknown point = (-dE + C + D)/(cota + cotß)
• Output the Coordinates of the point to a textbox
• Stop program

3.9 RESECTION
This technique permits the surveyor to set up the total station at any convenient
position (sometimes referred to as a free station) and then to determine the
coordinates and elevation of that instrument position by sighting previously
coordinated reference stations (Kavanagh,
B. F., 2010).
Figure 3-13 Resection
Below are sequence of operation that will be carried out and their formula
• Back computationThis is done between all three known points
• Change in Easting and Change in Northing
E 一 R=AE
N, - N; = AN
• Distance computation
L= VAEZ+ ANZ
• Bearing computation

• Compute bearing of line between second known point and third known
point
• Calculate angle at second point, from bearing of lines from first and
third known point
• Calculate distance between second known point and unknown point using
sin rule
• Calculate bearing of line between second known point and unknown point
• Compute change in easting and northing between the line.
• Compute coordinates of the unknown point.
• Stop.

3.9.1.2 FLOW CHART

Start
Input observed
masued at
unknown point
7
Compute horizontal distance between first known point and second known point
Compute bearing of line between second known point and third known point
Calculate angle at second point, from bearing of lines from first and third known
Do no
Figure 3-14 Flowchart for Resection
3.9.1.3 PSEUDO CODE
• Start program
• Accept coordinates of known points A, B, C from textbox
• Accept observed angles a, ß measured at unknown point between AB and BC
• dEAB = change in Easting between known points A and B
• dNAB = change in Northing between known points A and B

• Distance AB = sqrt(dEB^2 + dNaB 2)

• Bearing AB = tan' (dEAR/ dNAB)
• dEBc = change in Easting between known points B and C
• dNBc = change in Northing between known points B and C
• Distance BC = sqrt(dEc^2 + dNBc ^2)
• Bearing BC = tan '(dEBc/ dNc)
• Angle at B q = 180° + Bearing AB - Bearing BC
• S= (360°-а-В-ф)
• Q= AB * sin (B)/BC sin (a)
" Angle at B between A and P ®= tan' (sin (S) / (Q + cos (S)))
• Distance BP = AB * sin (0)/sin (a)
• Angle CBP = 180° - [B + (S - 0)]
• Bearing BP & = Bearing BC + СВР
• dEbp= BP * sin (8)
 • dNbp= BP * cos (8)
• Easting of Unknown point = Easting of Known point B + dEBp
• Northing of Unknown point = Northing of Known point B + dNp
• Output result to text box
• Stop

3.10 TESTING AND ANALYSIS

The develop model will be experimented on using sample data and the result of the
testing will be shown in the next chapter. Result of experiment will be compared
with other results obtainable from same sample data using other known methods like
spreadsheet application and manual computing.