Chapter 1

Basic
Algebra

Section 1.1: Sets

Course of Math107 Basic Sciences Department

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 2

Definition and Notations

Definition: A set is a collection of objects. It’s a box containing some
objects, which are called its elements or members. For example,
 Set of the letters in English Alphabet.
 Set of people in this classroom .
 Set of everything in this classroom.
 Set of even numbers.

Roster (list) Notation: Set Builder Notation: The elements

A set is described by listing all its of the set are described by listing
elements enclosed between braces their properties but in a more
{ } and separated by commas. symbolic way. For example,
For example, {𝑥 ∣ 𝑥 is a whole number and 𝑥 > 5},
 A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. which is read as “the set of all 𝑥’s
 B = {Ibrahim, Omar, Zayed}. such that 𝑥 is a whole number and 𝑥
 C = { a, b, c, … , x, y, z}. is greater than 5”. The vertical bar is
 D = {2,4,6,8,10,12, … }. read as “such that”.
 3

Example 1: Using Roster Notation

Write each of the following sets in roster notation.
a) The set of digits
{𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟗}.
b) The set of whole numbers.
{𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … }
c) The set of whole numbers greater than 5
{𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, … }.
d) The set of natural numbers less than or equal 5.
{𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓}

Note: Membership of an element

 If an object 𝒂 is an element of a set 𝑺, then we write 𝒂 ∈ 𝑺.
This is read as “𝒂 is an element of 𝑺” or “ 𝒂 belongs to 𝑺”.
 If 𝒂 is not an element of 𝑺, then we write 𝒂 ∉ 𝑺.
Example: 𝟏 ∈ {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} but 𝟖 ∉ {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}.
 4

Example 2:
A whole number 𝑛 is a perfect square if
𝑛 = 𝑘 2 )read this as “𝑛 equals 𝑘 squared”),
where 𝑘 is a whole number. Let 𝑆 be the set of all perfect squares whole
numbers.
a) Write the set 𝑆 in roster notation.
b) Write the set 𝑆 in set-builder notation.
Solution:
a) In roster notation, 𝑆 = 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, … .
b) In set builder notation,
𝑆 = 𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑘 2 for some whole number 𝑘

.
 5

Try & Check

A whole number 𝑛 is even if 𝑛 = 2𝑘 for some whole number 𝑘. Let 𝑇 be the

set of all even whole numbers.
a) Write the set 𝑇 in roster notation.
b) Write the set 𝑇 in set-builder notation.
 6

Types of Sets
Equal Sets: Two sets 𝑆 and 𝑇 are Singleton Set: A singleton set is a
equal if they have the same set that contains only one element.
elements. This is written as 𝑺 = 𝑻, If 𝒂 is an object, then 𝒂 is called
which is read as “𝑆 is equal to 𝑇”, “𝑆 the singleton set of 𝑎.
equals 𝑇” or “𝑆 is 𝑇”.
• If 𝑺 and 𝑻 are not equal, then we Subset of a Set: A set 𝑺 is a
write 𝑺 ≠ 𝑻. subset of a set 𝑻, written as 𝑺 ⊆ 𝑻,
For example, if every element of 𝑺 is also an
element of 𝑻.
1,2,3 = 2,3,1 = 3,2,1

1,2,3 ≠ 2,3

Empty Set: The symbol ∅

represents the empty set, which is
the set that has no elements.
Note: Sets can be shown as above.
In other words, ∅={ }. They are called Venn diagrams.
 7

Example 3: Finding Subset of a Set

List all subsets of the set {1,2,3}.
The subsets of {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} are:
∅, 𝟏 , {𝟐}, {𝟑}, {𝟏, 𝟐}, {𝟏, 𝟑}, {𝟐, 𝟑} and {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}.

Try & Check

List all the subsets of {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} containing 𝑎.

 8

Set Operations
Intersection of Sets: The intersection of two
sets 𝑆 and 𝑇 is the set 𝑺 ∩ 𝑻 “𝑆 intersection 𝑇”
given by: 𝑺 ∩ 𝑻 = 𝒙 𝒙 ∈ 𝑺 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 ∈ 𝑻 .
For example, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}∩{0, 2, 4}={2, 4}.

Disjoint Sets: If 𝑆 and 𝑇 have no elements in

common, then 𝑺 ∩ 𝑻 = ∅.
In this case, 𝑆 and 𝑇 are disjoint. For example, the
set of even whole numbers and the set of odd
whole numbers are disjoint.

Union of Sets: The union of sets 𝑆 and 𝑇, is the

set 𝑺 ∪ 𝑻 given by: 𝑺 ∪ 𝑻 = 𝒙 𝒙 ∈ 𝑺 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 ∈ 𝑻 .
𝑆 ∪ 𝑇 is the set of elements which belong to 𝑆 or to
𝑇 or to both.
For example, 0, 1, 2, 4 ∪ 1, 3 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 .
 9

Example 4: Performing Set Operation

Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐵 = {4,5}.
a) Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
b) Is 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵? Is 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴?
Solution: a) 𝐴 ∩ B = {4}, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3,4,5},
b) 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 since 1 ∈ 𝐴 whereas 1 ∉ 𝐵.
𝐵 ⊈ 𝐴 because 5 ∈ 𝐵 whereas 5 ∉ 𝐴.

Try & Check

Consider the two sets 𝐴 = {1,3,5,7} and 𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
Find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
 10

Review of Notations
∅, { } Empty set
{𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … } Set of Whole Numbers
{ 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … } Set of Natural Numbers
=, ≠ “equals”, “does not equal”
>, <, ≤, ≥ ”greater than”, “less than”, “greater than or
equal to”, “less than or equal to”
∈, ∉ “belongs to”, “does not belong to”
𝑺∩𝑻 S intersection T
𝑺∪𝑻 S union T
S⊆T “S is a subset of T”
 Chapter 1
Basic
Algebra
Section 1.2: Real Numbers and
Basic Arithmetic Operations

Course ofCourse of Math107

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 Section 1.2 Subsections

• 1.2.1 Sets of Numbers

• 1.2.2 Algebraic Operations and Expressions
• 1.2.3 Computing with Fractions
• 1.2.4 Natural Number Exponents
• 1.2.5 Grouping Symbols and Order of
Operations
• 1.2.6 Inequality Symbols and Absolute Value

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1.2.1. Sets of Numbers
W = {0,1, 2, 3, … } Whole Numbers

ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4, … } Natural Numbers

ℤ = {…,−2, −1, 0, 1, 2,… } Integers

𝑎
ℚ={𝑟∣𝑟= , 𝑎,𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑏 ≠ 0 } Rational Numbers
𝑏
𝑎
( is read as “𝑎 divided by 𝑏” or “𝑎 over 𝑏”)
𝑏
1100 2 10000
ℚ = { …,− ,…, , … , 3, … , , …} Rational Numbers
141 21 47

𝑎
Important: When a rational number is written as , it is also called a fraction where
𝑏
𝑎 is called the “numerator” and b is called the “denominator.”

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 Sets of Numbers

The real number line

Every point on the real line corresponds to a real number.

5
ℝ = {… , − 7, … , −2, … , − , … , 0, … , 𝜋, … , 1000, … } Real numbers
3

An irrational number is a real number that is not rational.

𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑥 ∊ ℝ, 𝑥 ∉ ℚ Irrational Numbers

Some examples of irrational numbers are 2 and 𝜋

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 Sets of Numbers

Real Numbers
Rational numbers Irrational numbers
4 5 11
,− ,
9 8 7
2
ℕ⊂𝑊⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ

Integers 𝐼⊂ℝ
-11, -6, -3, -2, -1 15
ℝ=ℚ∪𝐼
Whole numbers - 8 ℚ∩𝐼 =∅
0
𝜋
Natural
numbers 𝜋
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
4

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 Example:
Determine whether the statements are true or false.
a) Every integer is a rational number.
22
b) The number 𝜋 is a rational number because 𝜋 = .
7

Solution:

𝑎
a) True: If 𝑎 is an integer then 𝑎 = . Since the numerator and the
1
denominator are integers, the number is rational.

22
b) False: The number 𝜋 is irrational. The number is an approximation of 𝜋
7
and it is not equal to 𝜋.

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 Sets of Numbers
Every real number can be written in decimal notation.
It is called decimal representation of the number.
For example,
3
• = 0.75 (read 0.75 as “seventy-five hundredths”).
4
7
• = 2.3333 … (read 2.333 … as “two point three three…”).
3
• 2 = 1.41421356237309 …
• 𝜋 = 3.14159265358979323846 …

 Numbers such as 0.75 and 2.25 are called terminating decimals

 Numbers such as 0.3333 … (or 0. 3) and 3.7545454 … (or 3.754) are called
repeating decimals.

Decimal Representation of a Real Number

 The decimal representation of a rational number is either repeating or terminating.
 The decimal representation of an irrational number is neither repeating nor terminating

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Activity
Put an √ in the box if the number is an element of the set at the top of the
column.
Real numbers Rational Irrational Whole
Integers
numbers numbers numbers
−3

22
7

−𝜋

3.14

2.718281 …

1331
11

110.916

121

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1.2.2. Algebraic Operations and Expressions
Basic Algebraic Operations on Real Numbers
Operation Symbol Word

Addition + Plus
Multiplication × Times
Subtraction − Minus
Division ÷ Divided by

Variables Letters or symbols that stand for a set numbers

Constant A number or, letter or symbol that stands for a specific number (like ℼ)
𝜋+𝑡
Algebraic Expressions 𝑥 + 𝑦, , 2𝑥 − 𝑦𝑧 − 5.
𝑠−1
Sum of Real Numbers 𝑥+𝑦 “ the sum of x and y” OR “x plus y”

Commutative Law of Addition 𝑎+𝑏=𝑏+𝑎

Associative Law of Addition (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
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Algebraic Operations and Expressions
Additive Identity 𝑥+0= 0+𝑥 =𝑥 0 is the additive identity

Additive Inverse 𝑥 + −𝑥 = −𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 – 𝑥 is the additive inverse of 𝑥

Difference of Real Numbers 𝑥−𝑦 “𝑥 minus 𝑦” OR “subtract y from x”

Example: Checking Properties of Subtraction

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.
a) Subtraction is commutative.
b) Subtraction is associative.
Solution:

a) False: 1 − 2 ≠ 2 − 1. Subtraction is not commutative.

b) False: 1 − 1 − 1 ≠ 1 − 1 − 1 . Subtraction is not associative.
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Algebraic Operations and Expressions
Product of Real Numbers 𝑎×𝑏 “𝑎 times 𝑏” or “𝑎 multiplied by 𝑏”

“𝑎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑏 are factors of the 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 𝑎 × 𝑏”

Multiplication Notation Example
Several ways of Two letters next to each other 𝑎𝑏 means 𝑎 multiplied by 𝑏.
denoting
Multiplication dot 3 ⋅ 4 = 12.
multiplication
Two sets of parentheses −3 −4 = 12.
One set of parentheses 3 4 = 12 or 3 4 = 12.
A number next to a letter 3𝑥 means 3 times 𝑥.

Commutative Law of Multiplication 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎

Associative Law of Multiplication (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)

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 Example: Applying Laws on Multiplication

Apply the Commutative and Associative Laws of Multiplication to

multiply: 2 ⋅ 129 ⋅ 5. Do not use calculator.

Solution:
Use commutative law of “×”. 2 ⋅ 129 ⋅ 5 = 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 129

Use associative law of “×”. (2 ⋅ 5) ⋅ 129 = 10 ⋅ 129

Find the product. 10 ⋅ 129 = 1290

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Algebraic Operations and Expressions
Multiplicative Identity 𝑥∙1=1∙𝑥 =𝑥 1 is the multiplicative identity

1 1 1
Multiplicative Inverse 𝑥⋅ = ⋅𝑥 =1 is the multiplicative inverse
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
(reciprocal) of 𝑥 (𝑥 ≠ 0).

Zero Factor Property If 𝑥𝑦 = 0 then 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑦 = 0

Example: Using Zero Factor Property

Let 𝑥 be a real number. Suppose that 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 = 0. What are the
possible values of 𝑥? (Use the zero-factor property)

Solution:
By the zero-factor property, 𝑥 − 1 = 0 or 𝑥 + 1 = 0, and by the
additive inverse property 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = −1.
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Algebraic Operations and Expressions
Distribution of Law of Multiplication over Addition

𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 (right distributive law of “×” over“+”).

𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 (left distributive law of “×” over “+”).

Example: Using Distributive Property of Multiplication

Remove the parentheses from each of the following

expressions.
a) 5(x+4) b) (2+x)x c)(2x+3)(3x+2)
Solution of c) Use the left distributive law of “×” over “+”.
(2𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 + 2) = 2𝑥 + 3 3𝑥 + (2𝑥 + 3)(2)
Use the right distributive law of “×” over “+”.
2𝑥 + 3 3𝑥 + (2𝑥 + 3)(2) = 2𝑥 3𝑥 + 3 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 3(2)
Simplify: 2𝑥 3𝑥 + 3 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 3 2 = 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 6 = 6𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 6

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Algebraic Operations and Expressions
• − −𝑎 = 𝑎 • −1 𝑎 = −𝑎
Properties of Negatives
• −𝑎 −𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 • −𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 −𝑏 = −(𝑎𝑏)

The Distributive Law of Multiplication Over Subtraction

• 𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐 (left distributive law of “×” over “−”).
• 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 (right distributive law of “×” over“−”).

Example: Using Distributive Property of Multiplication

Remove the parentheses from each of the following expressions and simplify.
a) 2 2𝑤 − 5 b) 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 7)
Solution of b) Use the right distributive law of “×” over “−” then simplify

2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 7 = 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3 7
= 2𝑥 𝑥 − 3𝑥 − ( 2𝑥 7 − 3 7 )
= 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 14𝑥 + 21 = 2𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 + 21
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1.2.3. Computing with Fractions
𝑎
Division of Real Numbers “𝑎 divided by 𝑏” or “𝑎 over 𝑏”
𝑏 or “the quotient of 𝑎 and 𝑏"
0 𝑎
Division involving zero i) = 0 for 𝑎≠0 ii) is undefined
𝑎 0

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
Equivalent Fractions and are equivalent if =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑

𝑎 𝑐
Checking Equivalent Fractions = if and only if 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0
𝑏 𝑑

𝑎𝑐 𝑎 𝑎÷𝑐 𝑎
Cancellation Law for Fractions = , and = for 𝑏≠0,𝑐≠0
𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑏÷𝑐 𝑏

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 Try & Check
Are the following operations true? Justify your answer.
2+𝜋 2+𝜋 2
a) = =
3+𝜋 3+𝜋 3
2𝑥+4 2𝑥+4
b) = =2
𝑥+4 𝑥+4

2(𝑥+3) 2(𝑥+3)
b) = =2
𝑥+3 𝑥+3

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Computing with Fractions
Properties of Fractions 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎+𝑐
+ = , 𝑏 ≠ 0;
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
Sum of two fractions.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
+ = , 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0.
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎
Opposite of a fraction. − = = , 𝑏 ≠ 0.
𝑏 𝑏 −𝑏
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎−𝑐
− = , 𝑏 ≠ 0;
Difference of two 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
fractions.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
− = , 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0.
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
Product of two fractions. = , 𝑏, 𝑑 ≠ 0.
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
Reciprocal of a fraction. 𝑎 −1 𝑏
= , 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 0.
𝑏 𝑎
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
÷ = = ,
Quotient of two fractions. 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐
𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ≠ 0.

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 Example: Operations on Fractions
Perform the indicated operations. Write your answer as a single fraction and simplify
as much as you can. Do not use calculator.

Solution
1 3 1 5 +2 3 11
a) + = =
2 5 2 5 10
7 3 7 5 −2 3 35 − 6 29
b) − = = =
2 5 2 5 10 10

7 9 7 9 5 −1 7 38
c) 9 − = − = =
5 1 5 1 5 5

2 4 2⋅4 8
d) ⋅ = =
3 7 3 ⋅ 7 21
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Computing with Fractions

4 17 4 17 4 68
e) 17 − = − =− ⋅ =−
5 1 5 1 5 5

1 3 1 3 3 1
f) − =− ⋅ =− =−
6 8 6 8 48 16

3 5 3 5 15
g) − − = ⋅ = =1
5 3 5 3 15

3 5 3 5 7 35
h) 5 ÷ − =− ÷ =− ⋅ =−
7 1 7 1 3 3

2 5 2 5 2 6 12 4
i) − ÷ − = ÷ = = =
3 6 3 6 3 5 15 5
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 Try & Check
Perform the indicated operations. Write your answer as a
single fraction and simplify as much as you can. Do not use
calculator.
1 1 1 1 1 2
a) + e) − i) −
3 2 2 3 9 27

2 14 2 14 1
b) ⋅ f) − j) 5 −
7 3 7 3 5

1 1 2 14
c) 𝑎 ÷ , 𝑎 real. g) ÷ 𝑎, 𝑎 ≠ 0 k) − −
3 3 7 3

2 14 1 1 5
d) ÷ h) − ÷ − l) 3
7 3 3 2 7

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1.2.4. Natural Number Exponents

Exponential Expression
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 , “𝑎 to the 𝑛th-power”.
𝑛 times

In 𝑎𝑛 , the number 𝑎 is the base and 𝑛 is the exponent.

Some Special Powers

𝑎2 “𝑎 to the second power” or “𝑎 squared”.

𝑎3 “𝑎 to the third power” or “𝑎 cubed”.
𝑎𝑛 “𝑎 to the 𝑛”.

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 Example: Evaluating Exponential Expressions

Read and evaluate each expression. Indicate the base and the exponent.

a) 13 b) −2 4
c) −24

Solution
a) Read 13 as “1 to the third power” or “1 cubed”. The base is 1 and the exponent is 3.
13 = 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.
b) Read −2 4 as “negative 2 to the 4th power” or “negative 2 to the 4”.
The base is −2 and the exponent is 4.
−2 4 = −2 −2 −2 −2 = 16.

c) Read −24 as “the negative of 2 to the 4”. The power is 24 , the base is 2 and the
exponent is 4. First, evaluate the power then we take the negative:
−24 = − 24 = −16.
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 Try & Check
Read and evaluate each of the following expressions. Indicate the base
and the exponent.

5 5 32 3 2
a) −1 b) −1 c) d)
4 4

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1.2.5. Grouping Symbols and Order of Operations

Grouping Symbols

parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], braces { }, fraction bar .

The Order of Operations

Step 1. Working from left to right, evaluate expressions grouping symbols (whichever
comes first). Start with the innermost grouping symbol and work outwards.

Step 2. Working from left to right, evaluate exponential expressions (whichever comes
first).

Step 3. Working from left to right, do multiplication or division (whichever comes first).

Step 4. Working from left to right, do addition or subtraction (whichever comes first).

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 Example: Order of Operations
Evaluate: 15 + 40 ÷ 5 ⋅ 8 − 6 − 11 2 .

Solution
2
Evaluate inside parentheses = 15 + 40 ÷ 5 ⋅ 8 − −5
Evaluate the power. = 15 + 40 ÷ 5 ⋅ 8 − 25

Do the division. = 15 + 8 ⋅ 8 − 25

Do the multiplication. = 15 + 64 − 25

Do the addition and then the = 79 − 25 = 54

subtraction.

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 Example: Removing Delimiters

Remove the all delimiters from the following expression and simplify:

−2 3 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 7 + 3 2 − 5𝑥 + 10 − 7 −2 𝑥 − 3 + 5

Solution
From left to right, inside brackets, remove the parentheses.
−2 𝟑 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 + 7 + 3 𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 10 − 7 −𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟑 + 5 = −2 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 7 + 3 2 − 5𝑥 + 10 − 7 −2𝑥 + 6 + 5

From left to right, simplify within brackets.

−2 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟔𝒚 + 𝟕 + 3 𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 − 7 −𝟐𝒙 + 𝟔 + 𝟓 = −2 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 7 + 3 12 − 5𝑥 − 7 −2𝑥 + 11

From left to right, apply the distributive law.

−2 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 7 + 3 12 − 5𝑥 − 7 −2𝑥 + 11 = −6𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 14 + 36 − 15𝑥 + 14𝑥 − 77

Simplify: −6𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 14 + 36 − 15𝑥 + 14𝑥 − 77 = −7𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 55

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 Try & Check
Simplify the expression.
−2 −5 𝑦 − 𝑥 − 2 3 2𝑥 − 1 − 4 − 3 − 7

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 Example: Evaluating Algebraic Expressions by Substitution

If 𝑥 = −2, 𝑦 = −4 and 𝑧 = 5, evaluate the expression

𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧
3 𝑥+𝑧

Solution 4 + 2 −4 5
−2 2 + 2 −4 5
=
3 −2 + 5 3 −2 + 5

4 + (−40) −36 36
= = =− = −4
3 3 9 9

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1.2.6. Inequality Symbols and Absolute Value
Order on the Real Line
−6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Fig 5: 𝑎 < 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏

Numeric
Ordering Math Verbal interpretation Other meaning al
example
Notations 𝑎<𝑏 𝑎 is less than 𝑏 𝑏 is greater than 𝑎 1<2
𝑎>𝑏 𝑎 is greater than 𝑏 𝑏 is less than 𝑎 −1 > −2
𝑏 is greater than or equal
𝑎 is less than or equal to 𝑏 to 𝑎 1≤2
𝑎≤𝑏
𝑎 is at most 𝑏 1≤1
𝑎 is no more than 𝑏
 𝑏 is less than or
𝑎 is greater than or equal
equal to 𝑎 −1 ≥ −2
𝑎≥𝑏 to 𝑏
 𝑎 is at least 𝑏 −1 ≥ −1
 𝑎 is no less than 𝑏
 𝑎 is equal to 𝑏
1=1
𝑎=𝑏  𝑎 equals 𝑏
−1 = −1
 𝑎 is 𝑏
 𝑎 is not equal to 𝑏
𝑎≠𝑏 𝜋 ≠ 3.14
 𝑎 is different from 𝑏
𝑎 is approximately equal to
𝑎≈𝑏 𝜋 ≈ 3.14
𝑏

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Inequality Symbols and Absolute Value

 𝑎 is positive if 𝑎 > 0;
Signed Real Numbers  𝑎 is negative if 𝑎 < 0;
 𝑎 is non-negative if 𝑎 ≥ 0;
 𝑎 is zero if 𝑎 = 0;
 𝑎 is nonzero if 𝑎 ≠ 0;
 𝑎 is non-positive if 𝑎 ≤ 0.

Example: Signed Real Numbers

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.
• For real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, if 𝑎 < 𝑏 then −𝑎 < −𝑏.
• For any real number 𝑎, the number −𝑎 is negative.
Solution
False: If 𝑎 is to the left from 𝑏 on a number line, then −𝑎 is to the right from −𝑏.
False: The number −𝑎 is negative only when 𝑎 is positive.
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Inequality Symbols and Absolute Value

The Absolute Value of a Real Number |𝑥| “ the absolute value of 𝑥 ”

Properties of the Absolute Value • 𝑥 ≥0

• 𝑥 = | − 𝑥|
• 𝑥 = 0 if and only if 𝑥 = 0.

𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0,
Algebraic Definition of the Absolute Value 𝑥 =
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0.

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 Example: Absolute Value
Write the following without using absolute value symbol.
a) | 2 − 1|
b) |𝜋 − 4|
1 1
c) | − |
3 2

Solution
a) 2 − 1 = 2 − 1 because 2 − 1 > 0.

b) 𝜋 − 4 = − 𝜋 − 4 = 4 − 𝜋 because 𝜋 − 4 < 0.

1 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 2−3 1 1
c) − = − = − = = − = .
3 2 2 3 3 2 6 6 6 6 6

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 Example: Order of Operations
Apply order of operations to evaluate the following expression:
1 + 3 −42 − −8 + 2 3 + −5 2

Solution
1 + 3 −42 − −8 + 2 3 + −5 2

Evaluate the terms with powers inside each absolute value. = 1 + 3 −16 − −8 + 2 3 + 25

Evaluate inside absolute value. = 1 + 3 −16 + 8 + 2 28

= 1 + 3 −8 + 2 28
From left to right, evaluate each absolute value. = 1 + 3(8) + 2(28)
From left to right, do the multiplications. = 1 + 24 + 56
From left to right, do the additions. = 81

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 Chapter 1

Fundamentals
Section 1.3: Integer Exponents
Section 1.4: Polynomials

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 Section 1.3 Integer Exponents

• 1.3.1 Integer Exponents

• 1.3.2 Scientific Notation

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 3/35

1.3.1 Integer Exponents

Natural Number Exponent

If 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑛 is a natural number then
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 , 𝑎 appears as a factor 𝑛 times .
𝑛 times
The expression 𝑎𝑛 is read as “𝑎 (raised) to the 𝑛th-power”, the number 𝑎 is
the base and 𝑛 is the exponent. The expression itself is called power of 𝑎.
1 1 1 1
For example, 22 = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4 and ( )2 = ⋅ = .
2 2 2 4

WARNING: Be careful when dealing the exponents of negative numbers. Note that
−𝑎𝑛 and (−𝑎)𝑛 represent different operations.
For example: (−3)2 = −3 ⋅ −3 = 9
−32 = − 3 ⋅ 3 = −9
Some Special Powers:
 𝑎1 = 𝑎 “𝑎 to the first power is equal to 𝑎 ”
 𝑎2 “𝑎 to the second power” or “𝑎 squared”.
 𝑎3 “𝑎 to the third power” or “𝑎 cubed”.
 𝑎𝑛 “𝑎 to the 𝑛th”.
 4/35

Negative Integer Exponent

For a non-zero real number 𝑎 and a natural number 𝑛 we define 𝑎−𝑛 as the
reciprocal of 𝑎𝑛 .
−𝑛
1
𝑎 = 𝑛.
𝑎
The expression 𝑎−𝑛 is read as “𝒂 to the negative 𝒏th power.”
1
For example, 5−2 = 2 .
5
Some Special Powers:

1
 𝑎−1 = “𝒂 to the negative first power” or “ 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐟 𝐚”
𝑎
1
 𝑎−2 = “𝒂 to the negative second power” or “the reciprocal of 𝒂 squared”
𝑎2
 𝑎−3 “𝒂 to the negative third power”
 𝑎−𝑛 “𝒂 to the negative 𝒏”.
 5/35

Example 1: Evaluating Exponential Expressions

Evaluate each of the following expressions.

1 1
a) 3−1 b) −3−2 c) −3
3
d)
−3 −4
Solution:
1
a) 3−1 =
3
1 1
b) −3−2 = − 3−2 = − =− .
32 9
1
c) = 33 = 27.
3−3
1 1 4 1 𝑏
d) = 1 = −3 = 81 (Remember: 𝑎 = )
−3 −4 𝑎
−3 4 𝑏

Try & Check

Evaluate each of the following expressions.
3
a) −2 ⋅ 4−2 b)
−5 −3
3 3
c) d) −
−5 −2 −3 −3
 6/35

Zero Exponent

If 𝑎 is a non-zero real number then

𝑎0 = 1

Example 2: Evaluating Expression with Zero Exponent

Evaluate each of the following expressions

 30
30 = 1
 −30
−30 = − 30 = −1
1
 0
3
1 1
= =1
30 1
1

−3 0
1 1
= =1
−3 0 1
 7/35

Rules of Integer Exponents

Assume a, b, m and n are so that all expressions are defined.

Name of the rule The rule Example

Product of powers
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 22 ⋅ 2−5 = 2−3
(common base)

Quotient of powers 𝑎𝑛 22
𝑚
= 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 −5
= 27
(common base) 𝑎 2
2𝑎 3 = 23 𝑎3
Power of a product 𝑛
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛
(common exponents) = 8𝑎3
Power of powers 𝑎𝑛 𝑚
= 𝑎𝑛𝑚 22 −5 = 2−10
2
Power of quotient 𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 2 22 4
(common exponent) = 𝑛 = 2=
𝑏 𝑏 3 3 9
 8/35

Example 3: Applying the Rules of Exponents to Simplify Expressions

Simplify the following expressions using the properties of

exponents and write your answer using positive exponents only.

20𝑥 3 𝑦 4 𝑎𝑏 3 𝑐 2 2
𝑎) , 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑏) 5 2 3 2 , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ≠ 0
−4𝑥𝑦 2 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Solution:
20𝑥 3 𝑦 4 20 𝑥3 𝑦4 Separate the variables.
a) =
−4𝑥𝑦 2 −4 𝑥 𝑦2

𝑎𝑚
Apply the quotient rule: =
= −5 𝑥 3−1 𝑦 4−2 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑚−𝑛
= −5𝑥 2 𝑦 2
 9/35

Example 3: Continued

𝑎𝑏 3 𝑐 2 2
𝑏) 5 2 3 2 , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝑎𝑏 3 𝑐 2 2 𝑎2 𝑏3 2 𝑐 2 2 Apply the product rule, 𝑎𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 , in

= 5 2 2 2 3 2
𝑎5 𝑏2 𝑐 3 2 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 the numerator and in the denominator

𝑎2 𝑏 6 𝑐 4 Apply the power rule, 𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚 , in

= 10 4 6
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 the numerator and in the denominator.

𝑎2 𝑏6 𝑐4 Separate the variables

= 10
𝑎 𝑏4 𝑐6
𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎−8 𝑏 2 𝑐 −2 Apply the quotient rule: = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 .
𝑎𝑛

1 2
1 𝑏2 Rewrite powers with negative exponents
= 8×𝑏 × 2 = 8 2
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 as reciprocals.
 10/35

Try & Check

Simplify the following expressions using the rules of

exponents and write your answer using positive
exponents only
3
5𝑥 4 𝑦 3 −2𝑥 3 𝑦 5
𝑎) b)
15𝑥𝑦 5 2 6𝑥 5 𝑦 3
 11/35

Example 4: Applying the Rules of Exponents to Simplify Expressions

Simplify the following expressions using the properties of exponents and write your
answer using positive exponents only.
3 4 −2
2𝑥𝑦 3 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑎3 𝑏−2
𝑎) , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≠ 0 b) , 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 0
3𝑥𝑦𝑧 4 𝑎−2 𝑏3

Solution:
3 4
2𝑥𝑦 3 𝑦𝑧 2 23 𝑥 3 (𝑦 3 )3 𝑦 4 (𝑧 2 )4 𝑛
a) = Apply the power rule 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 .
3𝑥𝑦𝑧 4 34 𝑥 4 𝑦 4 𝑧 4

23 𝑥 3 𝑦 9 𝑦 4 𝑧 8 Apply the power rule 𝑎𝑚 𝑛

= 𝑎𝑚𝑛 .
= 4 4 4 4
3 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Simplify the numerator using the power rule
8𝑥 3 𝑦13 𝑧 8
=
81𝑥 4 𝑦 4 𝑧 4 𝑎𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 .
8 𝑥3 𝑦13 𝑧8
= Separate variables.
81 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑧4
8 3−4 13−4 8−4 8 −1 9 4 𝑎𝑚
= 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 Apply the power rule = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 .
81 81 𝑎𝑛
8 1 8𝑦 9 𝑧 4 1
= 9 4
× ×𝑦 ×𝑧 = Apply the power rule 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛.
81 𝑥 81𝑥
 12/35
Example 4: Continued

−2
𝑎3 𝑏−2
b) , 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑎 −2 𝑏3

3 −2 −2 −2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎3 𝑏 −2
= ⋅
𝑎−2 𝑏 3 𝑎−2 𝑏3 Within parentheses, use the power rule
3−(−2) −2−3 −2 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 .
𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎5 𝑏 −5 −2

𝑛
= 𝑎−10 𝑏10 Use the power rule 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 .

𝑏10 Rewrite powers with negative exponent as a reciprocal.

= 10
𝑎
 13/35

1.3.2. Scientific Notation

A positive real number is written in scientific notation when it is written

in the form
𝑎 × 10𝑛 ,
where 1 ≤ 𝑎 < 10 and 𝑛 is an integer.

A reminder: Powers of 10
Power of 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103 104
𝟏𝟎
Value 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Warning:
A number can be written in many ways using the powers of 10, but only
one of them represents the scientific notation. For example, while
𝟏𝟔. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 is true,
only 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏 is the scientific notation of 16.5
 14/35

Example 5: Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation

Write each number in scientific notation.

a) 295000000
b) 0.00000000105

Solution:
a) 295000000 = 2.95 × 108
b) 0.00000000105 = 1.05 × 10−9

Try & Check

Write each number in scientific notation.
a) 6400000
b) 0.000000002
 15/35

Example 6: Converting from Scientific Notation to Decimals

Rewrite the following numbers in decimal form.

a) 2.05 × 104
b) 5.01 × 10−5

Solution:
a) 2.05 × 104 = 2.05 × 10000 = 20500
b) 5.01 × 10−5 = 5.01 × 0.00001 = 0.0000501

Try & Check

Rewrite the following numbers in decimal form.

a) 1.05 × 106
b) 4. 1 × 10−6
 Section 1.4 Polynomials

• 1.4.1 Polynomials
• 1.4.2 Operations on Polynomials
• 14.3 Special Products

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 17/35

1.4.1 Polynomials

Monomials

A monomial is a real number or a product of a real number and one or more

variables with nonnegative integer exponents. The number is called the coefficient
of the monomial.

For Example:

1 1
 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 is a monomial in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧. Its coefficient is − .
2 2
 −𝑢2 𝑣 3 is a monomial in 𝑢 and 𝑣. Its coefficient is −1.
 𝑎𝑏𝑐 5 is a monomial in 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐. Its coefficient is 1.
 15 is a constant monomial. Its coefficient is 15.
 18/35

Degree of a Monomial

The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents of its variables. All nonzero
constants have a degree of 0. The number zero has no defined degree.

For Example:

1 1 1
 The degree of − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 is 4 because − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 = − 𝑥 2 𝑦1 𝑧1 .
2 2 2
 The degree of −𝑢2 𝑣 3 is 5.
 The degree 𝑎𝑏𝑐 5 is 7.
• The degree of 15 is 0 (15 = 15𝑥 0 ).
 19/35

Polynomials

• A polynomial is a monomial or a sum of monomials.

• Each monomial in that sum is a term of the polynomial.
• A polynomial with two terms is called a binomial.
• A polynomial with three terms is called a trinomial.

Monomial Binomial Trinomial

3𝑥 2 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧

−𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2

5𝑎𝑏 2 𝑐 3 4𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑢𝑤 + 𝑣𝑤 + 𝑢𝑣
 20/35
Degree of Polynomials
The degree of a polynomial is the degree of its term with the highest degree.
 Any nonzero real number is a polynomial with degree 0.
 The number 0 is a polynomial with no defined degree it is called the zero
polynomial.

Example 1: Identifying Parts of a Polynomial

3 3 4 2
For the polynomial 𝑥 𝑦 − 15𝑥𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 + 5𝑦𝑡 + 3𝑥 + 9, identify the
coefficient and the degree of each term, then find the degree of the polynomial.
Term Coefficient Degree
Solution: 3
𝑥𝑦 1 4
3 4
The polynomial has a  15𝑥𝑦 𝑧 −15 8
degree of 8. −𝑦𝑧 −1 2
5𝑦𝑡 5 2
2
3𝑥 3 2
9 9 0
 21/35

Try & Check

Identify the coefficient and the degree of each term and the degree of the polynomial
3 2
𝑥  𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 𝑡 + 2𝑦𝑡 + 3𝑥 𝑦𝑧𝑡𝑠

Term Coefficient Degree

3
𝑥

 𝑥𝑦𝑧

−𝑡

2𝑦𝑡
2
3𝑥 𝑦𝑧𝑡𝑠

The polynomial has a degree of

 22/35

Like Terms

Like terms or similar terms of a polynomial are either constants or

the terms having the same variables with the same exponents. To
combine like terms in a polynomial we add (or subtract) their
coefficients.
For Example:
 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 5𝑥 2 𝑦 = 2 + 5 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 7𝑥 2 𝑦
 2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 5𝑥 2 𝑦 = 2 − 5 𝑥 2 𝑦 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦
WARNING: Only like terms can be added or subtracted in a
polynomial.
In the polynomial 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 5𝑥𝑦, terms 2𝑥 2 𝑦 and 5𝑥𝑦 cannot be
combined because they are not like terms.
 23/35

Example 2: Combining Like Terms

Simplify the following:

a) 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 1
b) 2𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 3𝑥 3 𝑦

Solution: a) 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 1 Identify like terms.

= 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦2
+1 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦
= 4 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 + 1 Combine like terms by adding
2 2 2
their coefficients
= 7𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 + 1

b) 2𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 3𝑥 3 𝑦 Identify like terms.

= 2𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 3𝑥 3 𝑦
= 2 − 1 − 3 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 Combine like terms by adding their
= −2𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 coefficients
 24/35

Polynomial in Variable: Standard Form

A nonzero polynomial in one variable 𝑥 can be written in

standard form:
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , …, 𝑎0 are real numbers, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is a
nonnegative integer.
 The degree of this polynomial is 𝑛.
 The leading coefficient is 𝑎𝑛 and the constant term is 𝑎0 .

WARNING
 In standard form, the order of terms is important. For example, while 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
and 𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 2 represent the same polynomial, only 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 is in standard
form.
 The coefficients of missing terms are automatically 0. For example, 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 is
indeed 3𝑥 3 + 0 ∙ 𝑥 2 +1 ∙ 𝑥 + 0.
 25/35

Example 3: Identifying Parts of a Polynomial in One Variable

Write each of the following polynomials in standard form. Indicate the degree, the leading
coefficient, the constant term and the coefficient of 𝑥 4 for each of them.
a) −𝑥 7 + 8𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 b) 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5

Solution:
a) b)
 Standard form: −𝑥 7 + 𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 1 ;  Standard form: 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 ;
 Degree: 7;  Degree: 5;
 Leading coefficient: −1;  Leading coefficient: 1;
 Constant term: −1;  Constant term: 0;
 Coefficient of 𝑥 4 : 0.  Coefficient of 𝑥 4 : −5.
 26/35

1.4.2. Operations on Polynomials

Addition, subtraction and multiplication of polynomials can be done similar to real
numbers.
• All properties of these three operations (commutatitivity, associativity and distributivity
) are valid on polynomials.
• Only like terms can be added or subtracted. All like terms should be combined in every
operation.
• In multiplication, polynomials must be written in parentheses.

Example 5: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

a) Add: 6𝑎2 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏2 + 5 + 2𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 + 1 𝐛) Subtract: (𝑥 7 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦) − (−𝑥 7 + 𝑥𝑦 − 1)

6𝑎2 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2 + 5 + (2𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 1) 𝑥 7 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 − −𝑥 7 + 𝑥𝑦 − 1

= 6𝑎2 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2 + 5 + 2𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 + 1 = 𝑥 7 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 7 − 𝑥𝑦 + 1)
= 6𝑎2 𝑏 + 2𝑎2 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2 + 5 + 1 = 2𝑥 7 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 1
= 8𝑎2 𝑏 − 3𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2 + 6
 27/35

Example 5: Adding or Subtracting Polynomials

a) Compute the following and write the answer in standard form:

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 4 + 6 + 1 − 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 3 − 10 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥
1 1
b) Subtract − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 1 from 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 and write the difference in
3 2
standard form.
Solution for b):
1 3 1 2 Remove parentheses.
𝑥3+ 𝑥2
+𝑥+1 − − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +1
3 2
3 2
1 3 1 2 Combine like terms
=𝑥 +𝑥 +𝑥+1+ 𝑥 − 𝑥 −1
3 2
4 3 1 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝑥
3 2
 28/35

Example 6: Multiplying Polynomials

Expand and simplify (3𝑥 + 2𝑦)(2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 ).

Solution
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2
= 3𝑥 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 3𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 4𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 4𝑦 2
= 6𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 𝑦 + 12𝑥𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 3
= 6𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 12𝑥𝑦 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 3
= 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 3

Try & Check

Expand and Simplify 4𝑟 − 3𝑠 2𝑟 2 + 4𝑟𝑠 − 2𝑠 2 .
 29/35

1.4.3 Special Products

Two expressions of the form 𝑎 − 𝑏 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 are called

conjugates. The products related to these binomials are
called special products.
Formulas for Special Products
Product of Conjugates: 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
Square of a Binomial: 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2
Square of a Binomial: 𝑎 − 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2

Derivation of 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑎 − 𝑏 2
= 𝑎2 +𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2
= 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
 30/35

Example 7: Identifying and Simplifying Special Products

Multiply and simplify the following using special products:

a) 2𝑥 − 5 2𝑥 + 5
b) (2𝑥 + 5)2
c) (2𝑥 − 5)2
Solution:
a)
Determine which special product 2𝑥 − 5 2𝑥 + 5 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏),
where 𝑎 = 2𝑥 and 𝑏 = 5
is used
𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Write the formula.

Substitute 2𝑥 for 𝑎 and 5 for 𝑏. 2𝑥 − 5 2𝑥 + 5 = (2𝑥)2 − 52

Simplify. = 4𝑥 2 − 25
 31/35

Example 7: Continued

b)
Determine which special product (2𝑥 + 5)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 with 𝑎 = 2𝑥 and 𝑏 = 5.
is used
𝑎+𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
Write the formula.
2𝑥 + 5 2 = 2𝑥 2 + 2 2𝑥 5 + 52
Substitute 2𝑥 for 𝑎 and 5 for 𝑏.
Simplify. = 4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 25

c)
Determine which special product (2𝑥 − 5)2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 with 𝑎 = 2𝑥 and 𝑏 = 5.
is used
Write the formula. 𝑎−𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
2
Substitute 2𝑥 for 𝑎 and 5 for 𝑏. 2𝑥 − 5 = 2𝑥 2 − 2 2𝑥 5 + 52
Simplify. = 4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25
 32/35

Try & Check

Perform the indicated operations and simplify.

a) 3𝑐 2 − 4𝑑3 2

b) 3𝑐 2 − 4𝑑3 3𝑐 2 + 4𝑑3
c) 3𝑐 2 + 4𝑑3 2
 33/35

Example 8: Identifying and Simplifying Special Products

Derive a simplified formula for 𝑎 + 𝑏 3 .

Solution:
Rewrite the expression 3 2
𝑎+𝑏 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑎 + 𝑏
by using a special product.
= (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 )
Expand the square of the binomial.
Use distributive law. = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏𝑎2 + 𝑏 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏2

Simplify. = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏3

Try & Check

Derive a formula for the expansion of 𝑎 − 𝑏 3 .
 34/35

END OF LECTURE
Chapter 1
Basic
Algebra

Section 1.5: Factoring

Polynomials

Course of Math107 Basic Science Department

 2

Section 1.5: Factoring Polynomials

1.5.1 Factoring
Whole Numbers

1.5.2 Factoring
Polynomials
 3

1.5.1 Factoring Whole Numbers

Definition: Factoring a Whole Number

Factor a whole number that means write it as a product of other whole
numbers which are called its factors or divisors.

Example 1: Finding the factors of a whole number

Find all the factors of 48.

 We find all pairs of whole numbers whose product is 48.
1 ⋅ 48 = 48, 2 ⋅ 24 = 48, 3 ⋅ 16 = 48,
4 ⋅ 12 = 48, 6 ⋅ 8 = 48.
 In order, from the least to the greatest, the factors of 48 are:
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24 and 48.
 4

1.5.1 Factoring Whole Numbers

Definition: Prime Number & Composite Number
 A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 with only two
factors, itself and 1. For examples 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 31, ⋯ are
prime numbers.
 A composite number is a whole number greater than 1 that is not
prime. For examples 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, ⋯ are composite
numbers.
 The number 𝟏 is neither prime nor composite.

Prime Factorization of a Whole Number:

A composite number is factored completely if it is represented
as a product of his prime factors.
Such representation is called the prime factorization of the
number.
 5

Example 2: Finding the Prime Factorization

Write the prime factorization of 120.

120 = 2 ⋅ 60
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 30
=2⋅2⋅2⋅3⋅5
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 15
=2⋅2⋅2⋅3⋅5
= 23 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5

Try & Check

Write the prime factorization of 72.
 6

1.5.1 Factoring Whole Numbers

Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
Let's start with an Example …
Calculate the Greatest Common
Factor of 12 and 16.

Definition:
The "Greatest Common Factor“, with abbreviation GCF, is the largest
of the common factors of two or more numbers.

Finding GCF Using Prime Factorization:

To find the GCF of two (or more) whole numbers:
Step 1: Write the prime factorization of each number using exponential notation.
Step 2: Choose each common prime factor with the smallest exponent that
appears in the factorization.
Step 3: The GCF is the product of these factors with these exponents.
Step 4: If there is no common prime factor then the GCF is 1.
 7

Example 3: Using Prime Factorization to Find the GCF

Use the prime factorization to find the GCF of 60, 48 and 72.
The prime factorization of 60, 48 and 72 are:
60 = 22 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 5, 48 = 24 ⋅ 31 , 72 = 23 ⋅ 32
GCF 60,48,72 = 22 ⋅ 31 = 12

Example 4: Finding the GCF of a List of Monomials

Find the greatest common factor of 42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 and 63𝑥𝑦 2 .

Write the prime factorization 42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑦 3 ⋅ 𝑧
63𝑥𝑦 3 = 32 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 2
Then, GCF 42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧, 63𝑥𝑦 2 = 3 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 2 = 21𝑥𝑦 2 .

Try & Check

Find the greatest common factor.
a) 28𝑥𝑦 2 ; 36𝑥 2 𝑦 b) 15𝑎2 𝑑 3 ; 28𝑎3 𝑑; 32𝑎2 𝑑
 8
1.5.2 Factoring Polynomials
Definition:
Factor a polynomial that means rewrite the polynomial as product of
factors. This representation is called Factoring.
Factoring out the greatest common factor:
Factoring out the GCF of a polynomial means factoring the polynomial
using the GCF of the monomials used in the polynomial.

Example 5: Factoring Out the Greatest Common Factor

Example: Factor out the greatest common factor,

a) 42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 + 63𝑥𝑦 2
42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 7𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 , and 63𝑥𝑦 2 = 32 ⋅ 7𝑥𝑦 2 .
GCF(42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧, 63𝑥𝑦 2 ) = 21𝑥𝑦 2
42𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 +63𝑥𝑦 2 = 21𝑥𝑦 2 (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 3).
b) 2𝑥 3 𝑦 − 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 3
GCF(2𝑥 3 𝑦, 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 , 6𝑥𝑦 3 ) = 2𝑥𝑦
2𝑥 3 𝑦 − 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 3 = 2𝑥𝑦 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 3𝑦 2
= 2𝑥𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 ).
 9

1.5.2 Factoring Polynomials

Factoring by grouping:
Sometimes, the GCF of the monomials in a polynomial turns out to be just
1. In this case, it is still possible to factor the polynomial by using the
method so-called factoring by grouping. In this method, we break the
polynomial into two groups and look for a common factor between the
factors of the groups.

Example 6: Factoring by Grouping

Example: Factor by grouping.

a) 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 + (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 )
= 𝑦 3𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥(3𝑥 − 2)
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 3𝑥 − 2 .
b) 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 1 + (𝑥 − 1)
= (𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
 10

Try & Check

1: Factor out the greatest common factor

4𝑥 2 𝑦 − 8𝑥𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 3 𝑦 3

2: Factor by Grouping
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎 + 𝑏
 11

Factoring by Using Special Factoring Formulas

Special Factoring Formulas

Difference of Squares 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦)

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
Perfect Squares
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 2

𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
Sum and Difference of Cubes
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )

Some remarks on using special factoring formulas:

1. When using the special factoring formulas, we should be able to

notice if an expression is the perfect square or cube. For example,
in 𝑢6 − 𝑣 4 , we see that 𝑢6 = (𝑢3 )2 and 𝑣 4 = (𝑣 2 )2 .

2. The binomial 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 cannot be factored.

 12

Example 7: Factoring Difference of Squares

a) Factor 25𝑎2 − 64𝑏 2

Solution:
25𝑎2 = (5𝑎)2
25𝑎2 − 64𝑏 2 = 5𝑎 2 − (8𝑏)2
64𝑏 2 = (8𝑏)2

Remember 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦

2 2
5𝑎 − 8𝑏 = (5𝑎 + 8𝑏)(5𝑎 − 8𝑏)
 13
b) Factor 16𝑚4 − 𝑛4
16𝑚4 = (4𝑚2 )2 𝑛4 = (𝑛2 )2
4𝑚2 − 𝑛2 = 2𝑚 2
− 𝑛2

16𝑚4 − 𝑛4 = (4𝑚2 )2 −(𝑛2 )2

Use 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦

Use 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦

2
(4𝑚2 )2 −(𝑛2 )2 = (4𝑚2 + 𝑛2 )(4𝑚2 − 𝑛2 ) 2𝑚 − 𝑛2 = 2𝑚 + 𝑛 (2𝑚 − 𝑛)

Substitute for
2 2 2 2
4𝑚 + 𝑛 = (2𝑚) +𝑛 4𝑚2 − 𝑛2
Any binomial of the type 4𝑚2 − 𝑛2 = (2𝑚 + 𝑛)(2𝑚 − 𝑛)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 cannot be factored

(4𝑚2 )2 − 𝑛2 2
= (4𝑚2 + 𝑛2 )(2𝑚 + 𝑛)(2𝑚 − 𝑛)
 14

Try & Check

Factor the following polynomials.

a) 25𝑢2 − 36𝑣 2 b) 81𝑚8 − 16𝑛4
 15

Example 8: Factoring Perfect Squares

First check if the following polynomials are perfect squares, if yes, factor them.
a) 𝑎2 + 16𝑎𝑏 + 64𝑏2
b) 𝑢10 − 40𝑢5 + 25

Solution: a) Note that 𝑎2 and 64𝑏2 are perfect squares (Note that 64𝑏2 = 8𝑏 2 ).

𝑎2 + 16𝑎𝑏 + 64𝑏2 = 𝑎2 + 16𝑎𝑏 + (8𝑏)2

Match 𝑎2 + 16𝑎𝑏 + 64𝑏 2 with 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
Because 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

𝑥=𝑎 𝑦 = 8𝑏
Check if the middle terms are equal,
2xy=16ab?
2𝑥𝑦 = 2(𝑎)(8𝑏) = 16𝑎𝑏
Use 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2

Yes 𝑎2 + 16𝑎𝑏 + 64𝑏 2 = 𝑎 + 8𝑏 2

 16

b) 𝑢10 = 𝑢5 2 and 25 = 52 𝑢10 − 60𝑢5 + 25 = 𝑢5 2 − 60𝑢5 + 52

Match 𝑢5 2 − 60𝑢5 + 52 with 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 = 𝑢5 𝑦=5
Because 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2

Check if the middle terms are equal, 2𝑥𝑦 = 60𝑢5 ? 2𝑥𝑦 = 10𝑢5 ≠ 60𝑢5

𝑢10 − 60𝑢5 + 25 is not a perfect square.

Try & Check

Check if the following polynomials are perfect squares. If yes,

factor them:
a. 25𝑢2 + 60𝑢𝑣 + 36𝑣 2
b. 121𝑚8 − 88𝑚4 𝑛2 + 16𝑛4
 17

Example 9: Factoring Sum and Difference of Cubes

Factor the following polynomials:

a) 8ℎ3 + 125𝑘 3 b) 8ℎ3 − 125𝑘 3

Solution: a) Since 8ℎ3 = 2ℎ 3 and 125𝑘 3 = 5𝑘 3 , the binomial 8ℎ3 + 125𝑘 3 is sum
of cubes. So it can be factored by using the factoring of the sum of cubes,
Write the formula for sum of cubes. 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 (𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
Substitute 𝑥 by 2ℎ and y by 5𝑘 (2ℎ)3 +(5𝑘)3 = 2ℎ + 5𝑘 ((2ℎ)2 −(2ℎ)(5𝑘) + (5𝑘)2 )

b) Following the same way and using the factoring of the difference of cubes, we get
𝟖𝒉𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒌𝟑 = 𝟐𝒉 − 𝟓𝒌 (𝟒𝒉𝟐 +𝟏𝟎𝒉𝒌 + 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝟐 )

Try & Check

Factor the following polynomials:

a) 𝑥 3 + 27 b) 𝑥 3 − 27
 18
Factoring Quadratic Polynomials
Recall: Standard Form of a Trinomial
The standard form of a trinomial of second degree, called quadratic polynomial is
given by:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0.
The number 𝑎 is the leading coefficient, 𝑏 is the coefficient of the middle, and c is
constant term.
Factoring a Trinomial of the Form 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 (Leading Coef. 𝒂 = 𝟏)
Strategy: To factor 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄, where 𝒃 and 𝒄 are integers:
1- List factor pairs of 𝑐.
2- Find 𝒓 and 𝒔 such that 𝒓𝒔 = 𝒄, and 𝒓 + 𝐬 = 𝐛.
3- Write the factoring as 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = (𝒙 + 𝒓)(𝒙 + 𝒔).

Example 10: Factoring a Quadratic Polynomial with (a=1)

Factor the polynomial 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2.
Factors of 𝒄 Sum of factors (𝒓 + 𝒔)
𝑏 = 3 and 𝑐 = 2
The factored form is: (-2) (-1) -3 Incorrect
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 = (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐). (1) (2) 3 Correct
 19
Example 11: Factoring a Quadratic Polynomial
Factoring a Trinomial of the Form 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 (Leading Coef. 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏)
Factor 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6.

To factor 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6, find integers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 such that:

2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐 ∙ 𝑥 + 𝑑
Since the first term is 2𝑥 2 and 𝑎𝑐 = 2, so 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑐 = 1.

Note that 𝑏𝑑 = −6 . Since the middle term is negative, so possible

factors of −6 : {1, 6} or {1,  6} or {2, −3} or {−2, 3}.

Try various arrangements of these factors until find one that gives the
correct coefficient of 𝑥.

Thus:
𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟔 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒙 − 𝟐
 20

Try & Check

1. Factor 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏𝟓.

2. Factor 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐.

 Chapter 1

Fundamentals

Section 1.6:
Rational Expressions

CourseCourse of Math107
of MATH 111 Basic Sciences Department, EngineeringBasic
TrackScience Department 1
 Section 1.6 Rational Expressions

• 1.6.1 Simplifying Rational Expressions

• 1.6.2 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
• 1.6.3 Addition and Subtraction of Rational
Expressions
• 1.6.4 Using Least Common Denominator to Add or
Subtract Rational Expressions
• 1.6.5 Simplifying Complex Fractions

2
CourseCourse of Math107
of MATH 111 Basic Sciences Department, EngineeringBasic
TrackScience Department 2
 3/23

1.6.1. Simplifying Rational Expression

A Rational Expression is a fraction where the numerator and

denominator are polynomials
Some Examples:
𝑥+1 𝑥𝑦 2𝑥 3𝑥+1
, , ,
𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦+𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2 −4

Some Remarks on Rational Expressions:

1. The denominator of a rational expression cannot be 0.
2. When the denominator of a rational expression is 0, we say that the
expression is undefined.
𝑥+1
For example, in order for not to be undefined, the variable 𝑥 must be
𝑥

different from 0
 4/23

Example 1: Finding Numbers that Make a Rational Expression Undefined

3𝑥+1
Find all values of 𝑥 such that is undefined.
𝑥−2

Solution To find the set of all values of 𝑥 such that the rational expression is
undefined, we set its denominator equal to 0 and we solve for 𝑥.

Set the denominator equal to 0. 𝑥−2=0

Solve each equation for 𝑥. 𝑥=2

Conclusion: This rational expression is undefined when 𝑥 = 2.

 5/23

Simplifying Rational Expression

Convention:
In writing rational expressions, it is understood that only numbers for which
the denominator is nonzero are considered.

Rational Expression in lowest terms:

The numerator and the denominator of a rational expression in lowest
terms has no common factors. To simplify a rational expression means to
write it in lowest terms.

For Example:
 6/23

Simplifying Rational Expression

Theorem (The Cancellation Law)
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers such that 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑐 ≠ 0, then
𝑎𝑐 𝑎
= .
𝑏𝑐 𝑏

Example 3: Simplifying Rational Expressions

𝑥 4 +𝑥 3
Simplify the rational expression .
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2

Factor the numerator. First, factor out 𝑥4 + 𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥 + 1

the GCF, 𝑥 3 . =
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥2
𝑥3 𝑥 + 1 𝑥+1
Factor the denominator, First, factor out
= 2 = 𝑥 3−2
the GCF, 𝑥 2 . 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1 𝑥+1

Simplify. =𝑥
 7/23

Example 4: Simplifying Rational Expression

25−𝑥 2
Simplify .
𝑥 2 −7𝑥+10
25 − 𝑥 2
Solution 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10
Factor the numerator (use the factoring of 5−𝑥 5+𝑥
= 2
the difference of two squares). 𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 10
5−𝑥 5+𝑥
Factor the denominator. =
𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 2

In the binomial 5 − 𝑥, factor out −1; −1 𝑥 − 5 5 + 𝑥

5 − 𝑥 = (−1 (𝑥 − 5 . =
𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 2

Identify common factors −1 𝑥 − 5 5 + 𝑥

=
𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 2
Simplify 𝑥+5
=−
𝑥−2
 8/23

Example 5: Simplifying Rational Expressions containing factors that are additive inverses

Solution
Reminder:
𝑎−𝑏 =− 𝑏−𝑎
= −1(𝑏 − 𝑎
 9/23

1.6.2 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expression

To multiply rational expressions, we always simplify each expression

before multiplying. If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are real numbers such that 𝑏 ≠ 0, and
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
𝑑 ≠ 0 then ⋅ = .
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

Example 7: Multiplying Rational Expressions

3𝑥𝑦 𝑥 2 +6𝑥+9
Simplify the product: ⋅ .
𝑥 2 𝑦+3𝑥𝑦 3𝑥+9

3𝑥𝑦 𝑥+3 2
Factor all numerators and all = ⋅
𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 3 3(𝑥 + 3
denominators.
3𝑥𝑦 𝑥+3 2
Identify common factors. = ⋅
𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 3 3(𝑥 + 3

Simplify. =1
 10/23
Division of Fractions

Example 8: Dividing Rational Expression

𝑝2 −4𝑝−12 2𝑝2 +6𝑝+4
Simplify: 𝑝2 −6𝑝
÷ 8𝑝6 .
Solution:
Rewrite the division as a multiplication by 𝑝2 − 4𝑝 − 12 8𝑝6
= ⋅ 2
the reciprocal. 𝑝2 − 6𝑝 2𝑝 + 6𝑝 + 4
𝑝−6 𝑝+2 8𝑝6
Factor all terms. = ⋅
𝑝 𝑝−6 2(𝑝2 + 3𝑝 + 2

𝑝−6 𝑝+2 8𝑝6

Factor 𝑝2 + 3𝑝 + 2. = ⋅
𝑝 𝑝−6 2 𝑝 + 2 (𝑝 + 1
𝑝−6 𝑝+2 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 𝑝 ⋅ 𝑝5
Find common factors. = ⋅
𝑝 𝑝−6 2 𝑝 + 2 (𝑝 + 1
4𝑝5
Simplify =
𝑝+1
 11/23

1.6.3 Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expression

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions with Common Denominator

If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real numbers such that 𝑐 ≠ 0 then
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
+ = and − = .
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

Example 9: Adding or Subtraction Rational Expression

Perform the following operations and simplify

𝑥 2 +1 2𝑥 𝑥 2 +1 2
a. + b. −
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
a. 𝑥 2 +1 2𝑥 𝑥 2 +1+2𝑥
Add the numerators. + =
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
=
𝑥+1
 12/23

Example 9: continued

Factor the numerator 𝑥+1 2

=
𝑥+1
Simplify.
=𝑥+1

b.
𝑥2 + 1 2 𝑥2 + 1 − 2
Subtract the numerators. − =
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥2 − 1
Simplify =
𝑥+1

Factor the numerator 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1

=
𝑥+1

Simplify
=𝑥−1
 13/23

Example 10: Adding or Subtracting Rational Expressions with factors that are additive inverses

Solution:
 1.6.4 Using The Least Common Denominator To Add Or 14/23

Subtract Rational Expressions

When adding or subtracting rational expression with different

denominators, we first have to make these denominators equal by finding
the least common denominator (LCD).

1 1 5 3 5+3 8
For Example: + = + = =
3 5 15 15 15 15

Using Prime Factorization to find LCD

1. Write the prime factorization of each denominator using

exponential notation.
2. Identify the prime factors and the greatest exponents.
3. The least common denominator is the product of all the
prime factors with the greatest exponents
 15/23

Example 11: Using Prime Factorization to Find LCD

1 7 1
Use prime factorization to find the LCD of , and .
72 48 10

Solution
72 = 32 ⋅ 23
48 = 3 ⋅ 24
10 = 5 ⋅ 2

1 7 1
𝐿𝐶𝐷 , , = 5 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 24 = 720
72 48 10
 16/23

Example 12: Use Prime Factorization to Find LCD that Contains Variables

1 1 1
Use prime factorization to find the LCD of , 2 and
3𝑥−9 𝑥 −9 𝑥 2 −6𝑥+9

Solution:
Factor each denominator completely

3𝑥 − 9 = 3 𝑥 − 3 ,
𝑥2 − 9 = 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 𝑥 − 3 2

The LCD is the product of all factors with greatest exponent on each:

𝐿𝐶𝐷 = 3 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 3 2
 17/23

Example 13: Adding or Subtracting Rational Expressions with Different Denominators

1 1
Subtract −
𝑥 2 −4 𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4

Solution:
 18/23

Try & Check

1 3
Add + .
𝑥 2 −9 𝑥 2 +6𝑥+9
 19/23
1.6.5 Simplifying Complex Fractions

When a sum or a difference of rational expressions appears as a

numerator or a denominator of quotient, the quotient is called
complex rational expression

Example 14: Simplify Complex Rational Expression

Simplify the expression:

6
𝑥+1−
𝑥
𝑥+3
𝑥
Write the numerator as a single 6 𝑥+1 6
fraction. The denominator is 𝑥+1− = −
𝑥 1 𝑥
already a single fraction
 20/23

Example 14: Continued…

6 𝑥+1 6 𝑥 𝑥+1 −6⋅1

𝑥+1− = − =
𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
=
𝑥

6 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
𝑥+1−
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥+3 =
Rewrite the expression using the new form 𝑥+3
of the numerator and the denominator. 𝑥 𝑥
Rewrite the division as a multiplication 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 𝑥
= ⋅
with the reciprocal. 𝑥 𝑥+3

Factor 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 𝑥+3 𝑥−2 𝑥

= ⋅
𝑥 𝑥+3
𝑥+3 𝑥−2 𝑥
Identify common factors. = 𝑥
⋅
𝑥+3
=𝒙−𝟐
 21/23

Try & Check

Simplify the expression:

𝑥+3−4 𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥
 22/23

Example 15: Simplifying Complex Fractions using LCD

Solution:
 23/23

END OF LECTURE
 Chapter 1

Fundamentals

Section 1.7:
Radicals and Rational Exponents

Course
MATHof111
Math107 Basic Science Department
Course of Basic Sciences Department, Engineering Track 1
 Section 1.7 Radicals and Rational Exponents

• 1.7.1 Square root of a real number

• 1.7.2 Nth root of a real number
• 1.7.3 Rational exponents

2
 3/20

1.7.1 Square Root of a Real Number

If 𝑥 ≥ 0, then the square root of 𝑥, denoted by 𝑥, is defined to be the real

number 𝑦 so that 𝑦 2 = 𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 ≥ 0.

Example 1: Evaluating Radicals

• 144 = 12 because 122 = 144.

• − 1 = −1 because 1 = 1.
25 5 5 2 52 25 5
• = because = = and > 0.
9 3 3 32 9 3
• −1 is not a real number because −1 < 0.
(The square root of a negative number is not a real number.)
 4/20

Simplifying 𝒙𝟐
If 𝑥 is any real number, then 𝑥 2 = |𝑥|.
For example, (−12)2 = 144 = 12.

Example 2: Simplifying an expression of the form 𝒙𝟐

a) 9𝑥 2 b) 81𝑚4 c) 𝑛6 d) 𝑢2 + 4𝑢 + 4
Solution
= 3𝑥 2 = (9𝑚2 )2 = (𝑛3 )2 = (𝑢 + 2)2
= 3𝑥 = 9𝑚2 = 𝑛3 = 𝑢+2
= 3|𝑥|. = 9𝑚2
Try & Check

Simplify the following square roots.

a) 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 b) 169𝑛8
 5/20

Cube Root of a Real Number

If 𝑥 is any real number, the cube root of 𝒙, denoted by 3 𝑥 (read as

“the cube root of 𝒙”) is the real number 𝑦 so that 𝑦 3 = 𝑥.
For example,
3 Note:
 0 = 0 because 03 = 0.
3 The cube root of any real number
 8 = 2 because 23 = 8. exists regardless of its sign and
3 3 3
 −8 = −2 because −2 = −8. 𝑥 3 = 𝑥 for all real number 𝑥.

Example 3: Simplifying cube roots

3
a) −27 b)
3
−125 c)
3
−
27
d)
3
216
1000
Solution
3
3
= −27 =
3
−5 3 3 33 3 3
3
= 23 ⋅ 33
= − = − 3
=
3
−3 3 103 10 = 63
= −3 = −5. 3
=− =6
10
 6/20

1.7.2 Nth Root of a Real Number

Let 𝑥 be a real number and 𝑛 ≥ 2.

1. If 𝑛 is even and 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ 0.
4
• 16 = 2 because 24 = 16, 2 > 0 and 16 > 0.
⁎ If n is even, the nth root of a positive number is a positive real
4
number. Note that 16 = 24 = (−2)4 but 16 = 2.
4
• −16 does not exist because −16 < 0.
⁎ If n is even, the nth root of a real number is not defined if it is
negative.
2. If 𝑛 is odd, for any real number 𝑥, 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥.
3
• 8 = 2 because 23 = 8.
3
• −8 = −2 because −2 3 = −8.
⁎ If n is odd, the nth root of any real number exists and nth root
can be any real number.
 7/20

Notations and Terms

 In the notation 𝑛 𝑥, the symbol is called a radical, 𝑛 is called the index,
and 𝑥 is called the radicand.
 If 𝑛 = 2, we write 2 𝑥 as 𝑥.
 An algebraic expression containing a radical is called a radical expression.

𝑛
Simplifying 𝑥𝑛

Let 𝑛 be a natural number and 𝑥 be a real number.

𝑛
• If 𝑛 is even then 𝑥 𝑛 = |𝑥|.
𝑛
• If 𝑛 is odd then 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥
 𝑛 8/20
Example 4: Simplifying 𝑥𝑛

Simplify the following radical expressions. Assume x is any real number.

4
a) 16𝑥 4 5
b) 𝑥 5 𝒄)
4
81𝑥 8 𝒅)
6
𝑥+3 6

Solution
4
= 2𝑥 4 =𝑥 =
4
3𝑥 2 4 6
𝑥+3 6 = |𝑥 + 3|
= 2𝑥 = 3𝑥 2
= 2|𝑥| = 3𝑥 2

Try & Check

Simplify the following radical expressions. Assume 𝑥 is any

real number.

4 5 5 7 7
a) 𝑥4 b) −32𝑥 5 c) 243𝑥 15 d) 𝑥+3
 9/20

Product and Quotient Rules for Radicals

Let a and b be real numbers and let n be a natural number, n ≥ 2.

n
If n a and b exist as real numbers, then
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
a) 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 “the 𝑛th root of 𝑎 times 𝑏 equals the 𝑛th root of 𝑎 times the 𝑛th
root of 𝑏”.
𝑛
𝑛 𝑎 𝑎
b) = 𝑛 “the 𝑛th root of 𝑎 divided by 𝑏 equals the 𝑛th root of 𝑎 divided by
𝑏 𝑏
the 𝑛th root of 𝑏”.

Example 5: Simplifying Radicals

Simplify the following expressions.
3
a) 𝑚9 , 𝑚 ≥ 0 b)
3
−24𝑥 5 3 10𝑥 2
2
𝑐) d) 3
Solution 27𝑦 6 16
= 𝑚8 𝑚 3
= (−2)3 𝑥 3 3𝑥 2 3
10𝑥 2
3
2
3
2
= 𝑚8 𝑚 = 3 = 3 = 3 3
3 3 27𝑦 6 16 ( 2)( 8)
= (𝑚4 )2 𝑚 = (−2𝑥)3 3𝑥 2
3
10𝑥 2 1 1
= 𝑚4 𝑚 = 𝑚4 ( 𝑚) = −2𝑥 ∙
3
3𝑥 2 =
3𝑦 2
= 3 =
8 2
 10/20
Like Radicals
• Radical expressions with the same index and the same radicand are
called like or similar radicals.
• Only like radicals can be combined via subtraction and addition. For
example, 3 + 4 3 = 5 3 or 𝑦 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 = (𝑦 + 4) 𝑥

Example 6: Adding and Subtracting Radicals

5 5
Simplify a) 50 − 200 b) 𝑧 ∙ 64𝑧 − 2 ∙ 2𝑧 6
Solution
5 5
= 25 ⋅ 2 − 102 ⋅2 =𝑧∙ 25 2𝑧 − 2 ∙ 𝑧 5 2𝑧
5 5 5 5
= 5 2 − 10 2 =𝑧 25 2𝑧 − 2 𝑧5 2𝑧
5 5
= −5 2 = 2𝑧 2𝑧 − 2𝑧 2𝑧 =0
 11/20

Rationalizing Denominators

When we rewrite a fraction containing radicals in its denominator as an

equivalent fraction with no radical in the denominator we say that we
have rationalized the denominator.
How to rationalize an irrational denominator
𝑎
Multiply For any nonzero real number or expression 𝑎, we have = 1.
𝑎
In order to rationalize the denominator, multiply

Check out the following examples:

1 1 2 2 2
• = = (Note that = 1. a is chosen 2 because 2 2=2 is integer.)
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 ( 2+1) ( 2+1) 2+1
• = = (Note that = 1. a is chosen 2 + 1, because
2−1 (2−1) ( 2+1) 1 2+1
( 2− 1)( 2 + 1) = ( 2)2 − 1 2 = 1 is an integer.)
In rationalizing denominator, we use the fact 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑏.
The squares helps to get rid of square roots. 𝑎 + 𝑏 and 𝑎 − 𝑏 are
called conjugates of each other.

Example 8: Rationalizing Denominators Using Conjugates

Simplify the following expressions by rationalizing their denominators.
1 3
a) b) , 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 5
1+ 2 𝑥− 5

Solution
Multiply the
1 1− 2 numerator and the 3 𝑥+ 5
= ∙ = ∙
1+ 2 1− 2 denominator by the 𝑥− 5 𝑥+ 5
conjugate
1− 2
= 2 Use
12 − 2 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 3( 𝑥 + 5)
=
1− 2 1− 2 to obtain the new ( 𝑥)2 −( 5)2
= = denominator
3( 𝑥 + 5)
1−2 −1 =
= 2−1 𝑥−5
12
Course of Math107 Basic Science Department
 13/20
1.7.3 Rational Exponents

1
If 𝑥 is a real number and 𝑛 is a natural number, 𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑥 is defined to
𝑛

be the 𝒏th root of 𝑥. That is,

1
𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥
𝑛
provided that 𝑥 is a real number.

Some Examples:

1
• If 𝑥 ≥ 0, then 𝑥 = 𝑥.
2
1
• If 𝑥 is any real number, then 𝑥 = 3
3
𝑥.
1
• If 𝑥 < 0, then 𝑥 = 4
4
𝑥, which is undefined as a real number.
 14/20

Definition of Rational Exponents

Reminder: A fraction is said to be in lowest terms if it cannot be simplified any
2 4
further. For example, is in lowest terms while is not.
3 6
𝒎
𝑚
If is a fraction in lowest terms, where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers and 𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝒙 is 𝒏
𝑛
defined by
𝒎 𝟏 𝒎
𝒎
• 𝒙 = 𝒙
𝒏 𝒏 = 𝒏
𝒙 or
𝒎 𝟏
𝒏
• 𝒙 = 𝒏 𝒙𝒎 𝒏 = 𝒙𝒎 provided that 𝒏
𝒙 is a real number.
For example, (Example 9, page 88)
5 1
• 4 = (4 )5 = ( 4)5 = (2)5 = 32
2 2
4 1
• (−8) = ((−8) )4 = (−2)4 = 16
3 3
2 1
−5 1
• (32) = ((32) 5 )−2 = (2)−2 =
4
6 3 1
• (25) = (25) = ((25) )3 = ( 25)3 = 53 = 125
4 2 2
 15/20

Rules of Exponents: Revisited

All the rules for integer exponents also hold for rational
exponents provided that 𝑎𝑚 and 𝑏 𝑚 are real numbers.

Description The rule Example

Product of powers
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 21∕2 ⋅ 21 3 = 25∕6
(Common base)
Quotient of powers 𝑎𝑛 21∕2
(Common base) 𝑚
= 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 1∕3
= 21 6
𝑎 2
−4
Power of powers 𝑎𝑛 𝑚
= 𝑎𝑛𝑚 21∕2 = 2−2
1
Power of a product 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 8𝑎 3 = 81 3 𝑎1 3
𝑎𝑏 =𝑎 𝑏
(Common exponents)
= 2𝑎1 3

Power of quotient 𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 8 2 3 82 3 4
= 𝑛 = =
(Common exponent) 𝑏 𝑏 27 272 3 9
 16/20
Example 10: Simplifying Expressions with Rational Exponents

Simplify each expression. Express your answer using only positive

exponents. Assume that the variables are positive.
−2 3 6
𝑥 −1 5 10 16𝑥 3 𝑦 1 2
𝑎) 𝑥 𝑏)
𝑦 −1 2 𝑥2𝑦3 1 3
Solution
161 2 𝑥 3 1 2 𝑦 1 2
6 =
𝑥 −2 3
10
𝑥2 1 3 𝑦3 1 3
= −1 5
𝑥
𝑦 −1 2 6
4𝑥 3 2 𝑦 1 2
=
𝑥 −4 𝑥2 3𝑦
= −3 ⋅ 𝑥 −2
𝑦
= 4𝑥 (3 2−2 3) 1 2−1
𝑦
𝑥 −6 𝑦3 4𝑥 5 6
= −3 = 6 = 4𝑥 5 6 𝑦 −1 2
= 1 2
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
 17/20
Try & Check

Simplify each expression. Express your answer so that only

positive exponents occur. Assume that the variables are positive.
3
8
𝑝−1 4 −1 3 6 16𝑥 4 4
a) 𝑚 𝑏)
𝑚1 2
625𝑦 8
 General Strategy for Simplifying Radical
Expressions
Conventionally, a radical expression is in simplified form if all the following
conditions are met:
3
1. The radicand has no factor raised to a power 5 ∙ 34 is not in simplified form.
greater than or equal to the index.
6
2. No power of the radicand and the index of the 54 is not in simplified form.
radical have a common factor. 4
3. There are no radicals in the denominator of a is not in simplified form.
5
fraction.
3
4. The radicand does not contain a fraction. is not in simplified form.
5
 19/20
Example 11: Using Rational Exponents to Simplify Radicals

For each of the following expressions, determine which of the above conditions are
not met. Then write in simplified form. Assume that all variables are positive.
4
𝑎) 𝑥 3 𝑦 b) 16𝑥𝑦 2 3 16𝑥 4
𝑐)
𝑦
Solution
Condition 1 is violated. Condition 2 is violated. Condition 4 is violated.
1 3
= 𝑥 2 𝑥𝑦 = 16𝑥𝑦 2 1 4 24 𝑥 4
=
𝑦
= 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 = 24 1 4𝑥1 4 𝑦2 1 4
2𝑥 4 3 𝑦 2 3
=
= 21 𝑥 1 4 𝑦 2 4 𝑦1 3𝑦2 3
2𝑥 2𝑥 1 3 𝑦 2 3
=
= 2𝑥 1 4 𝑦 1 2
𝑦
3
4 2𝑥 2𝑥𝑦 2
=2 𝑥 𝑦 =
𝑦
 20/20

END OF LECTURE