GASIFICATION

What Is Gasification?

• Gasification involves turning organic fuels (such as biomass

resources) into gaseous compounds (producer gas or syngas) by
supplying less oxygen than is needed for complete combustion of the
fuel. Gasification occurs at temperatures between 600 and 1500º C
and produces a low-to medium-energy gas depending upon the
process type and operating conditions.
• Gasification is a process in which combustible materials are partially
oxidized or partially combusted. The product of gasification is a
combustible synthesis gas, or syngas.
• Because gasification involves the partial, rather than complete,
oxidization of the feed, gasification processes operate in an
oxygen-lean environment.
What Is the Gasification Mechanism?

• During gasification, the fuel (e.g., biomass resources) is

heated to a high temperature, which results in the
production of volatile compounds (gases) and solid residues
(char).
•The quantity and composition of the volatile compounds
depend on the reactor temperature and type, the
characteristics of the fuel and the degree to which various
chemical reactions occur within the process.
• The primary reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen result in the
conversion of the fuel to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. These
reactions are very fast and release heat, which provides the energy
needed to sustain other gasification reactions.

• Gasification of solid materials (char) occurs at high temperatures (> 600C)

and produces gases, tars and ash.

• Generally, these reactions are carried out in the presence of reactive

agents such as oxygen, steam and hydrogen added to the reactor to aid in
the chemical conversion of char to volatile compounds
• These reactions dominate the gasification process and
dictate the final composition of the producer gas or syngas.
Their occurrence and extent depend on the operating
conditions of the gasifier.
•Secondary reactions, which occur at temperatures greater
than 600ºC and under appropriate pressure conditions,
involve the decomposition of the tars to produce carbon and
gases.
What Are the Differences Between
Producer Gas and Syngas?
Producer gas Syngas (synthesis gas)
• Producer gas is the mixture of gases • Syngas (synthesis gas) is a mixture of
produced by the gasification of organic carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
material such as biomass at relatively low
temperatures (700º to 1000ºC). Producer gas (H2), which is the product of high
is composed of carbon monoxide (CO), temperature steam or oxygen
hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and gasification of organic material such
typically a range of hydrocarbons such as as biomass. Following clean-up to
methane (CH4) with nitrogen from the air. remove any impurities such as tars,
Producer gas can be burned as a fuel gas
such as in a boiler for heat or in an internal syngas can be used to produce
combustion gas engine for electricity organic molecules such as synthetic
generation or combined heat and power natural gas (SNG-methane (CH4)) or
(CHP). The composition of the gas can be liquid biofuels such as synthetic diesel
modified by manipulation of gasification (via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis).
parameters.
Generic Types of Gasifiers
• Moving bed
• Fluidised bed
• Entrained flow
• Hybrid and Novel gasifiers
FIXED BED GASIFIERS
Moving bed gasifier
Moving bed gasifiers are countercurrent flow reactors in which the coal
enters at the top of the reactor and air or oxygen enters at the bottom.
As the coal slowly moves down through the reactor, it is gasified and
the remaining ash drops out of the bottom of the reactor.
Because of the countercurrent flow arrangement, the heat of reaction
from the gasification reactions serves to pre-heat the coal before it
enters the gasification reaction zone.
Consequently, the temperature of the syngas exiting the gasifier is
significantly lower than the temperature needed for complete
conversion of the coal.
The residence time of the coal within a moving bed gasifier may be on the
order of hours.
Moving bed gasifiers have the following characteristics:
1

• Low oxidant requirements;

• Relatively high methane content in the produced gas;
• Production of hydrocarbon liquids, such as tars an oils;
• High “cold gas” thermal efficiency when the heating value of the
hydrocarbon liquids are included;
• Limited ability to handle fines; and
• Special requirements for handling caking coal.
Fluidised bed
• A fluidized bed gasifier has a bed made of an inert material (such as
sand, ash or char) that acts as a heat transfer medium. In this design,
the bed is initially heated and the fuel introduced when the
temperature has reached the appropriate level. The bed material
transfers heat to the fuel and blows the reactive agent through a
distributor plate at a controlled rate. Unlike fixed bed reactors,
fluidized bed gasifiers have no distinct reaction zones and drying,
pyrolysis and gasification occur simultaneously during mixing
• Compared to other gasifiers, fluidized bed gasifiers have strong
gas-to-solids contact, excellent heat transfer characteristics, better
temperature control, large heat storage capacity, a good degree of
turbulence and high volumetric capacity. But they operate at pressures
slightly above atmospheric levels (which requires that leaks be
prevented), and they respond slowly to load changes. Due to their
complicated and expensive control systems, fluidized bed gasifiers
appear to be commercially viable at larger sizes (> 30 MW thermal
output). Fluidized bed reactors are classified by their configuration and
the velocity of the reactive agent and consist of bubbling, circulating
and spouted fluidized beds.
Generic characteristics of fluidized bed gasifiers include: 2

• Extensive solids recycling;

• Uniform and moderate temperature; and
• Moderate oxygen and steam requirements.
BUBBLING FLUIDISER
• In bubbling fluidized bed gasifiers , fuel is fed into the reactor and
gases are introduced at a flow rate that maintains pressure at a level
sufficient to keep the fuel particles in suspension. The introduced
gases pass through the reactor bed in the form of bubbles that rise and
grow in size until they reach the surface of the bed, where they burst.
The pressure must be maintained across the bed. Bubbling fluidized
bed reactors are categorized as either single or dual fluidized beds.
Single fluidized bubbling bed gasifiers have only one bed where the
fuel and the reactive agent enter and from which the syngas and char
exit
• This design results in lower cost and less maintenance relative to
multi-bed designs, and the syngas is ready for utilization. However,
the energy content of the syngas is lower than achieved in dual-bed
designs, inorganic materials in the fuel cannot be separated and
pyrolysis occurs at the bottom of thegasifier leading to nonuniform
temperature distribution. Dual- or multi-bed bubbling gasifiers have
more than one bed.
• The first bed is usually used to burn some of the char to produce the
energy for the second bed, where pyrolysis occurs. Dual-bed systems
produce syngas with higher energy content due to the combustion of
the char in a separate chamber, which prevents the combustion gas
from diluting the pyrolysis gas. Additionally, inorganic materials in
the fuel can be separated and the heat of pyrolysis reactions is evenly
distributed, allowing pyrolysis to occur at a relatively uniform
temperature. Higher construction costs and greater maintenance are
the disadvantages of a dual system.
Entrained Flow
• Finely-ground coal is injected in co-current flow with the oxidant.
• The coal rapidly heats up and reacts with the oxidant.
• The residence time of an entrained flow gasifier is on the order of
seconds or tens of seconds. Because of the short residence time,
entrained flow gasifiers must operate at high temperatures to achieve
high carbon conversion.
• Consequently, most entrained flow gasifiers use oxygen rather than air
and operate above the slagging temperature of the coal.
Generic characteristics of entrained flow gasifiers include: 3

• High-temperature slagging operation;

• Entrainment of some molten slag in the raw syngas;
• Relatively large oxidant requirements;
• Large amount of sensible heat in the raw syngas; and
• Ability to gasify all coal regardless of rank, caking characteristics or
amount of fines.
EFFICIENCY OF GASIFIERS
What Are the Factors Affecting
Gasification?
A number of factors affect gasification reactions including the
• temperature,
• pressure and height of the reactor bed;
• the fluidization velocity;
• the equivalence ratio;
• the air-to-steam ratio; and
• the characteristics of the fuel.
• Increasing the temperature increases the formation of combustible
gases, decreases the yield of char and liquids and leads to more
complete conversion of the fuel. Hydrocarbon gases (especially
methane and ethylene) increase with temperature while the yields of
higher hydrocarbons (C3-C8: organic chemicals having 3 to 8 carbons)
decrease at temperatures above 650º C. The energy content of the
syngas increases steadily up to 700ºC then decreases at higher
temperatures.
• The rate of char gasification and yields of methane increase with
increasing pressure, and the impacts are most significant at high
temperatures (900º-950ºC)
• For a given reactor temperature, higher fuel bed heights increase the
time fuels are available for reactions to occur (residence time), which
increases total syngas yields and increases the concentrations of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and ethylene in
the syngas.
• Fluidization velocity (fluidization is the processing technique
employing a suspension of a small solid particle in a vertically rising
stream of fluid – usually gas – so that fluid and solid come into
intimate contact) affects the mixing of particles within the reactor.
Higher velocities increase the temperature of the fuel bed and lead to
the production of lower energy syngas.
• The equivalence ratio (actual fuel-to-air ratio divided by the
stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio) affects the temperature of the fuel bed.
High ratios increase the rate of syngas production, and low ratios
result in the production of lower syngas yields and energy content and
more tar. Increases in the steam-to-air ratio increases the energy
content of the syngas.
What Are the Limitations of the Gasification
Process?
• Although gasification processes are highly developed, there are still several
limitations, particularly with respect to biomass gasification, including the
moisture content and size of the fuel particles, the fuel feeding system, the
ash deformation temperature, particle mixing and segregation and
entrainment (elutriation).
• Fuel moisture content differs by fuel type. Fuels with high moisture content
lower the reactor temperatures due to the amount of energy needed to dry
the fuel, which results in the production of lower energy syngas and lower
yields of syngas. The speed at which fuel particles heat up (i.e., the heat
rate) decreases as particle size increases, resulting in the production of more
char and less tar.
• The type of fuel-feeding mechanism required is determined by the
size, shape, density, moisture content and composition of the fuel.
Mechanisms developed to accommodate the wide variety of biomass
fuels include direct feeding in which the feeding mechanism is isolated
from the reactor to prevent the back-flow of tar and combustible gases,
and over-the bed feeders, which are usually less troublesome because
there is no direct contact between the hot fuel bed material and the
feeder. However, the use of over-the-bed feeders is restricted to fuels
of higher density and/or larger sized particles and, because of particle
emissions, results in the production of a dirty syngas, which must be
cleaned before use.
• At lower operating temperatures, some minerals in the fuel can cause
agglomeration. The temperature at which agglomeration occurs (the
ash deformation temperature) depends on the fuel type and its mineral
composition. Effective mixing of fuel particles of various sizes is
needed to maintain uniform temperature within the reactor.
Gasification processes and their
products.
How Much Energy Can Be Produced
by Gasification?

• 1 acre of wheat land produces about 3,000 pounds of wheat straw.

• 1 pound of wheat straw contains about 7,750 Btu.
• 1 pound of straw could produce 23.9 ft3 of gas with average calorific
value of 125 Btu/ft3.
• 1 acre of wheat land could produce 71,700 ft3 of producer gas.
• 1 acre of wheat land could produce 8.9 MMBtu.
• 1 acre of wheat straw could replace 410 pounds of propane.
What Are the Applications of
Gasification Technology?
Production of hydrogen
• Hydrogen is currently produced in large quantities via steam
reforming of hydro carbons over a Ni catalyst at 800ºC. This process
produces a syngas that must be further processed to produce
high-purity hydrogen. The syngas conditioning required for steam
reforming is similar to that required for a biomass gasification-derived
syngas; however, tars and particulates are not as much of a concern.
Production of methanol
• Commercial methanol synthesis involves reacting CO, H2 and steam
over a copper-zinc oxide catalyst in the presence of a small amount of
CO2 at a temperature of about 260ºC and a pressure of about 70 bar
(1015 psi). To best use the raw product syngas in methanol synthesis,
it is essential to maintain H2/CO of at least 2 and CO2/CO ratio of
about 0.6 to prevent catalyst deactivation and to keep the catalyst in an
active reduced state.
Production of heat and power
• Power generation can be accomplished via gasification of biomass,
followed by a combustion engine, combustion turbine, steam turbine
or fuel cell. These systems can produce both heat and power (CHP –
Combined Heat and Power) and can achieve system efficiencies in the
range of 30 to 40 percent.
Production of gasoline or diesel
• Gasoline and diesel (synthetic fuels) can be produced from syngas via
a process named Fischer-Tropsch (FT). The FT synthesis involves the
catalytic reaction of H2 and CO to form hydrocarbon chains of various
lengths (CH4, C2H6, C3H8, etc.). Gasifier-produced gases with H2/CO
ratio around 0.5 to 0.7 are recommended as a feed to the FT process
when using iron as a catalyst.
Production of ethanol
• Anaerobic bacteria are able to grow on syngas components, thus
forming acetate and ethanol. The bacterial conversion has the
advantages of high selectivity, no thermal equilibrium and fewer
problems with catalyst poisoning. The bacterial culture has to be able
to convert CO2, CO and H2 into ethanol. The technology has been
proven in a pilot plant in Arkansas, where ethanol has been produced
from diverse feedstocks for several years. The reaction time from
biomass to distilled ethanol has been proven to be short (7-8 minutes)
compared to fermentation of sugars, which often lasts one to two days.
CURRENT STATUS OF GASIFICATION
TECHNOLOGY
• The world’s largest gasification manufacturing facility is Gasifier and
Equipment Manufacturing Corporation (GEMCOR) in Philippines.
They produce about 3000 units/year ranging in size from 10-250 kW.
Besides they have recently started producing gasifiers for direct heat
applications. Their primary applications have been for irrigation
pumps and power generating sets. To date about 1000 units have been
installed within Philippines running on charcoal, wood chips and
briquettes. Brazil is another country where large scale gasification has
been undertaken.
• In both the Brazilian and Philippines program the gasifiers are mostly
charcoal powered. In this a strict quality control of the fuel has to be
maintained. Thus companies involved in Brazil and Phillipines in
gasifier manufacturing also supply quality fuel.
• Inadequate fuel quality is the biggest problem in running these
gasifiers.
• In Europe there are many manufacturers especially in Sweden, France,
West Germany and Netherlands who are engaged in manufacturing
gasification systems for stationery applications.
• Most of the market for these countries are developing countries.
• In the research area the most active program in gasification is at
University of California, Davis and University of Florida, Gainesville.
Many systems in the range of 10-100KW have been developed at
Davis.
• U.S is also ahead of the rest of the world in direct heat application
gasifiers.
• Both fluidized and fixed bed gasifiers have been developed for this
purpose.
• In other countries of Asia and Africa the work is being carried out in
research institution and few prototypes have been made and tested.
ADAVANTAGES OF BIOMASS
• A huge array of diverse materials, frequently stereochemically and
enantiomerically defined, is available from biomass giving the user
many new structural features to exploit
• Many products of the chemical industry are oxygenated. There are
few general ways to add oxygen to crude oil derived hydrocarbons,
and many of them require the use of toxic reagents in stoichiometric
amounts resulting in severe waste disposal problems. Biomass is
already highly oxygenated, and could be used to avoid problems with
oxidation
• Increased use of biomass would extend the lifetime of diminishing crude oil
Supplies.
• The use of biomass could be a way to mitigate the buildup of COS in the
atmosphere because the use of biomass as a feedstock results in no net
increase in atmospheric CO2 content
• A chemicals industry incorporating a significant percentage of renewable
materials is secure because the feedstock supplies are domestic
• Biomass is a more flexible feedstock than is crude oil. Crude oil is formed
and its composition set by geological forces. With the advent of genetic
engineering, the tailoring of certain plants to produce high levels of specific
chemicals is possible.
Disadvantages
• Biomass is necessarily seasonal, leading to peaks and valleys in the
supply of feedstock. The chemical producer using biomass needs a
regular day to day supply, and must be assured that the material used
at the beginning of the year will be the same quality as that used at
the end of the year.
• Many of the biomass sources being considered as chemical
feedstocks have traditionally been used as sources of food. The
justification for diverting part of this resource to chemical production
has been questioned. Biomass also requires space to grow, and the
environmental impact of large scale biomass plantations has been
examined.
• Existing economic circumstances are an important issue. A
renewables based industry must be compared to the existing
petrochemical industry because the products from both serve the
same marketplace.
• The petrochemical industry is huge and highly efficient in all stages of
operation. Much of its capital Investment is paid off. The mechanisms
and operation of its processes are well understood and give single
products of high purity. The biomass industry is still developing
processes that possess these features.
• The wide range of materials that comprise biomass could be a
detriment if new processes need to be developed for each feedstock.
The building blocks extracted from biomass are foreign to traditional
chemical producers and must be demonstrated to function similarly
to existing building blocks.