Joints

• Where bones meet:

• Bone
• Cartilage
• Teeth
• Also called an articulation
• Classified by function (the amount of
movement they allow) and by structure
(what is used to bind the bones together)
Joint Classification
• Structure
• Fibrous: joined by fibrous tissue
• Cartilaginous: joined by cartilage
• Synovial: bones are separated by fluid-filled
cavities
• Movement
• Synarthroses: immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints
• Diarthroses: freely movable joints
Joint mobility
• Range of motion
• Normal extent of mobility for a specific
joint movement
• Typically refers to the movement
possible at the freely movable synovial
joints
• Measured in degrees with a protractor
• Degrees of freedom
• Number of axes at which movement in a
joint occurs
• Best described in the context of synovial
joints
Factors that affect joint stability
• Articular surface shape
• Allow movement at the joint
• Freedom of movement opposes joint
stability
• Number & position of ligaments
• Prevent undesired movement
• Generally more ligaments = greater
strength
• Muscle tone
• Most important for stability
• Tone is the contractile activity of a
relaxed muscle
• Keeps the tendons taught
Fibrous Joints
• Gomphoses
• Peg-in-socket joints
• Only example: Teeth in the jaw
• Synarthrosis
• Sutures
• Lie between the bones of the skull
• Interlocking irregular edges
• Synarthrosis
• Syndesmoses
• Bones that are connected by ligaments
• Allow some give but dependent on the
length of the ligament
• Amphiarthrosis
• Example: Ulna + Radius; Tibia + Fibula
Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses
• Articulation of bone with hyaline
cartilage
• All immoble
• Classified as synarthroses
• Examples:
• Epiphyseal plate
• Costal cartilage
Cartilaginous Joints: Symphyses
• A pad of fibrocartilage between
articulating bones
• Allow slight mobility
• Classified as Amphiarthroses
• Examples:
• Pubic symphysis
• Intervertebral discs
Synovial joints
• Articular capsule enclosing the joint cavity that
strengthens the joint
• Outer fibrous capsule
• Inner synovial membrane
• Joint cavity filled with fluid
• Synovial fluid
• Secreted by the synovial membrane, provides a
weight-bearing lubricant to the joint
• Possess articular cartilage to protect the bone
ends
• Reinforcing ligaments
• Reinforce and strengthen the joint
• Extrinsic are outside and separate from the joint
capsule
• Intrinsic are part of the joint capsule
• Classified as diarthroses
Bursae & tendon sheaths
• Not part of the joint but
closely associated
• Bursae
• Sac-like structure containing
synovial fluid
• Alleviate friction where
bone, muscle, tendons, &
ligaments meet
• Tendon sheaths
• Elongated bursae wrapped
around a tendon
Classification of synovial joints
• Dependent on the articulating surfaces
and the type of movement allowed
(degrees of freedom)
• Movement is described relative to a
particular plane (axis)
• Uniaxial – movement in one plane
• Biaxial – movement in two planes
• Multiaxial – movement in multiple planes
Classification of synovial joints: non-axial
• Plane Joint
• Least mobile
• Flat articular surface
• Allow short, gliding movements
• nonaxial
Classification of synovial joints: uniaxial
• Hinge Joint
• Cylindrical projection that fits into a trough
shaped bone
• Permits flexion and extension
• Like a door hinge
• Uniaxial
• Pivot Joint
• Round end of a long bone protrudes into a
“sleeve” of bone or ligament
• Rotates along the longitudinal axis
• Permits rotation
• Shaking your head “no”
• Uniaxial
Classification of synovial joints: biaxial

• Condyloid Joint
• Oval shaped articular surface fitting into a complementary depression
• Permits all angular motions (Back & forth and side to side)
• Saddle Joint
• Possess a concave and convex surface on both bones
• Greater range of motion than Condylar
Classification of synovial joints: triaxial
• Ball-and-socket Joint
• Most mobile
• Spherical head of bone fits into a
cup-like socket on another bone
• Allows complete freedom of
movement
• Triaxial
Four general types of movement
• Gliding (translation)
• One bone surface slips over another
without appreciable angulation or
rotation
• Angular
• Increase/decrease the angle
between two bones
• Rotation
• Turning the bone around the long
axis
• Special movements
• Only occur at specific joints
Gliding movements
• Simple movement
• Two opposing surfaces slide against
one another
• Back & forth or side-to-side
• Angle between bones doesn’t change
• Limited movement
• Occurs at plane joints
• Occurs at the intercarpal and
intertarsal joints
Angular movements
• Increase or decrease the angle between
two bones
• Flexion
• Movement in the anterior–posterior plane
• Decreases the angle between the bones
• Extension
• Movement in the anterior–posterior plane
• Increases the angle between the bones
• Opposite of flexion
• Hyperextension
• Extension of a joint beyond 180°
• Lateral flexion
• Laterally movement of the body in the
coronal plane
Angular movements
• Abduction
• “Moves away”
• Lateral movement of the limb away from the
midline
• Adduction
• “Moves toward”
• Lateral movement of the limb towards the
midline
• Circumduction
• Movement of the limb creating a cone in space
• Involves flexion, extension, adduction, &
abduction in rapid succession
Rotational Movements
• Rotation
• Pivoting motion
• Movement of the bone around its long
axis towards/away from the midline
• Lateral rotation = external rotation
• Medial rotation = internal rotation
• Pronation
• Medial rotation of the forearm

= • palm faces posteriorly, U & R are

crossed (x)
• Supination
• Lateral rotation of the forearm
• Palm faces anteriorly, U & R are
parallel (=)

X
=
X
Special Movements
• Limited to ankle joint
• Dorsiflexion
• Superior surface of the foot moves
toward the leg
• Plantarflexion
• Toes point inferiorly
• Occur at the intertarsal joints
• Eversion
• Sole of the foot turns laterally
• Inversion
• Sole of the foot turns medially
Special Movements
• Protraction
• Anterior non-angular movement in the transverse
plan
• Retraction
• Posterior non-angular movement in the transverse
plan
• Depression
• Inferior movement of a part of the body
• Elevation
• Superior movement of a part of the body
• Opposition
• Movement of the thumb moves to the palmar tips as
it crosses the palm
• Enables the hand to grasp objects
• Reposition is the opposing movement
Skeletal muscles as levers
• Lever
• A straight, stiff object that moves along a fixed pivot
point (fulcrum)
• Moment arm is the distance from the fulcrum to
the force
• Applied force – the force applied to the lever
• Resistive force – acts against the applied force
• Mechanical advantage when the load is near the
fulcrum and the effort is applied far from the
fulcrum
• The arrangement of skeletal muscles and bones
as levers decreases the amount of force required
to move bones.
• Bones are the levers
• Joints are fulcrums
• Muscles apply the force
Three kinds of levers
• First class lever
• Muscle force and resistive force act on opposite sides of
the fulcrum
• Mechanical disadvantage – a large muscle force is
necessary to act against a relatively small external
resistance
• Not very many first-class levers in the body
• Second class lever
• Muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of
the fulcrum
• Muscle force acting through a moment arm longer than
moment arm of the resistive force
• Mechanical advantage – necessary muscle force is less
than the resistive force
• Not many second-class levers in the body
• Third class lever
• Muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of
the fulcrum
• Muscle force acting through a moment arm shorter than
that through which the resistive force acts
• Most common levers in the body
Temporomandibular joint
• Articulation between the mandible
(mandibular condyle) and the
temporal bone (mandibular fossa)
• Loose articular capsule supported by
ligaments allows for a variety of
motion
• Hinge-like action during depression when
mandible sits in the mandibular fossa
• When mouth is opened, mandible is
articulated forward (protraction) and
braced against the articular tubercle for
biting
• Gliding motion: allows for a side-to-side
motion (lateral excursion) during chewing
Glenohumeral (Shoulder) joint
• Ball and socket joint
• Shallow glenoid cavity (scapula) + large
head of the humerus
• Glenoid labrum compensate for shallow
fossa
• Stability is sacrificed for free
movement
• Few reinforcing ligaments, located
primarily on the anterior aspect
• Coracoacromial ligament
• Coracohumeral ligament
• Glenohumeral ligaments
• Muscle tendons that cross the joint are
the primary stabilizers
• Several bursae reduce friction
Elbow joint
• Three separate joints
• Humeroulnar joint is a hinge joint
• True elbow joint
• Trochlea of humerus articulates with trochlear
notch of the ulna
• Allows flexion and extension
• Humeroradial joint
• Capitulum of the humerus articulates with the
head of the radius
• Radioulnar joint
• Pivot joint
• Not functionally part of the elbow
• Allows pronation and supination of the forearm
• Side-to-side movements are restricted by
strong radial and ulnar collateral ligaments
• Anular ligament surrounds neck of radius
and binds it to ulna
Hip joint
• Ball and socket joint
• Movement is limited
• Deep socket formed by acetabulum
• Acetabular labrum: fibrocartilage deepens
socket
• Ligaments
• Reinforce the articular capsule
• Iliofemoral (anterior)
• Ischiofemoral (posterior)
• Pubofemoral (inferior)
• Muscles and tendons from the hip and
thigh reinforce stability
• Large range of motion, but limited
compared to shoulder girdle
 Knee Joint
Right Knee

• Primarily a hinge joint

• Bicondylar structure
Patella
within • During flexion, slight rotation and lateral gliding
quadriceps
tendon possible

Fibula Tibia
• Three joints
• 2x Tibiofemoral joints
Patellar surface
• Lateral and medial condyles of the femur articulates with
Articular cartilage the condyles of the tibia
of the femur
Lateral Medial • Patellafemoral joint
condyle condyle
• Patella articulates with the patellar surface of the femur

Fibula Tibia
Knee Joint
• Menisci
• Two C shaped fibrocartilage pads (lateral
and medial) that stabilize the knee joint
• Lie between the condyles of the femur
and the tibia
• The articular capsule is incomplete
• Encloses only the medial, lateral, and
posterior aspects of the joint
• Anterior aspect is covered by the
tendons of the quadriceps muscle
• Heavily reinforced by muscle tendon
• Movement is restricted in the joint by
ligaments & tendons
Knee Joint: ligaments
• Collateral ligaments
• Become taught on extension to reinforce the lateral and
medial surfaces
• Fibular
• Lateral support
• Protects against hyperadduction at the knee
• Tibial
• Medial support
• Prevents the leg from moving too far laterally relative to
the thigh
• Cruciate ligaments
• Deep to the articular capsule
• Cross one another hence names
• Anterior (ACL)
• During extension, prevents hyperextension
• Posterior (PCL)
• During flexion, prevents hyperflexion
• Patellar ligament
• Connects the patella to the tibia