Animal Forms & Functions

Dr Sada Nand Pandey

Zoology
 Syllabus

4. Nervous system
4.1 Patterns of nervous system in non chordates
4.2 Organization of nervous system in vertebrates: central and autonomic system

5. Receptors and sense organs

5.1 Phonoreception in fish and mammals
5.2 Photoreception in insects and mammals
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• Anatomy of eye:
 Organ of sense of sight.

 Eyeball is hollow, spherical,

situated in orbital cavity.

 24 mm in diameter
 Only 1/6th visible outside.

 Also contains the lens, aqueous

humor, and vitreous humor.

 Composed of 3 main layers:

i. Fibrous layer (outer)
ii. Vascular layer (middle)
iii. Retinal/nervous layer (inner)
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 Less than 1% of all light that
reaches us is in the visible spectrum.
By most estimates it comes out to
about .0035% of the entire
electromagnetic spectrum.

 We see amazingly well within that

tiny band, but beyond that nothing.
If we could see in all wavelengths ?

 Photoreception is the mechanism

of light detection (by the eyes)
that leads to vision when
interpreted by the brain.

 Light is absorbed by specialised

photoreceptor cells in the retina,
which convert the light stimulus
into nerve impulses.
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1. Outer fibrous layer (sclera):
 Tough, fibrous opaque coat made up of dense
connective tissue, white in colour.
 Provides shape to the eyeball and protective in
function.
 Modified in the central portion of the eye to form
clear transparent and avascular cornea.
2. Middle vascular layer (choroid):
 Bluish as it contains numerous blood vessels.
 Also k/a uveal layer.
 Thin over posterior 2/3rd of the eyeball called
choroid.
 In front it thickens to form ciliary body.
 Also contain pigmented granules ; provides a dark
background so, prevent entry of extra amount of
light in the eye.
 Ciliary body
 Attached to the suspensory ligament (zonule).
 Other end of this ligament is joined to the lens.
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 Continues forward to form the iris.

 Contains circular and longitudinal muscle

attach near corneo-scleral junction.

 Ciliary muscles play important role in

accomodation of eye.
 Iris
 Pigmented, opaque, muscular structure
 Imparts colour to the eye i.e. black, brown, or
blue.
 In the centre, an aperture pupil is present through
which light reaches the interior of the eye.
 Contains two types of muscle: Sphincter pupillae
(circular) & Dilator pupillae (radial)

 These muscles determines the size of the pupil.

Divides the space between posterior surface of cornea and anterior surface of lens into
anterior and posterior chambers. both the chambers are filled with Aqueous Humour.
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Iris:-
 Regulates the intensity of light by contraction or dilation of pupil.
 Its pigmented layer absorbs extra amount of light entering the eye.
 Also prevents entry of light through periphery of lens, prevents spherical and
chromatic aberration.
3. Inner nervous layer (retina):-
 Contains an outer pigmented layer of epithelial cells attached to the inner surface
of the choroid.
 Inner layer of nerve cells and nerve
fibers which contain the
photoreceptors, the rods and cones.

 Nerve fibers from retina form the

optic nerve to finally reach the
brain.
 The small area where optic nerve
leaves - optic disc, contains no
sensitive receptors i.e. rods and
cones. So, no vision - blind spot.
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 Current understanding is that the 6 to 7 million cones can be divided into "red" cones (64%),
"green" cones (32%), and "blue" cones (2%) based on measured response curves.

They provide the eye's color sensitivity. The green and red cones are concentrated in
the fovea centralis. The "blue" cones have the highest sensitivity and are mostly found outside
the fovea, leading to some distinctions in the eye's blue perception.

 The cones are less sensitive to light than the rods, as shown a typical day-night comparison.
The daylight vision (cone vision) adapts much more rapidly to changing light levels, adjusting to
a change like coming indoors out of sunlight in a few seconds.

 Like all neurons, the cones fire to produce an electrical impulse on the nerve fiber and then
must reset to fire again. The light adaption is thought to occur by adjusting this reset time.
The cones are responsible for all high resolution vision.

 The eye moves continually to keep the light from the object of interest falling on the fovea
centralis where the bulk of the cones reside.
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 The rods are the most numerous of the photoreceptors, some 120 million, and are the more
sensitive than the cones. However, they are not sensitive to color. They are responsible for our dark-
adapted, or scotopic, vision.

The rods are incredibly efficient photoreceptors. More than one thousand times as sensitive as the
cones, they can reportedly be triggered by individual photons under optimal conditions.

 The optimum dark-adapted vision is obtained only after a considerable period of darkness, say 30
minutes or longer, because the rod adaption process is much slower than that of the cones.
 The rod sensitivity is shifted toward shorter wavelengths compared to daylight vision, accounting
for the growing apparent brightness of green leaves in twilight.

While the visual acuity or visual resolution is much better with the cones, the rods are better
motion sensors. Since the rods predominate in the peripheral vision, that peripheral vision is more
light sensitive, enabling you to see dimmer objects in your peripheral vision.

 If you see a dim star in your peripheral vision, it may disappear when you look at it directly since
you are then moving the image onto the cone-rich fovea region which is less light sensitive. You can
detect motion better with your peripheral vision, since it is primarily rod vision.

The rods employ a sensitive photopigment called rhodopsin.

Rods Do Not See Red!

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 The gene for human rhodopsin is located on chromosome 3.

 The S-cone pigment gene is located on chromosome 7.

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 At posterior pole of the
eye, a yellowish
pigmented spot, called the
macula lutea (yellow spot)
which marks the location
of fovea centralis.
 Fovea is located 3 mm
temporal to the optic disc,
is thinned out rod-free
portion where cones are
densely packed and there
are few cells and no blood
vessels overlying the
receptors.
 Fovea is the point of greatest visual acuity (sharpness of vision) and is highly
developed in humans.
 Layers of retina and photoreceptors (rods and cones):
 Contains 10 layers except in optic disc and fovea centralis.
 Rods and cones are placed outermost towards the choroids.
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 The layer of retina from outwards to inwards are-
• Layer 1: pigmented epithelium-
 Contains melanin pigment which along with choroid absorbs extra amount of light, thus
preventing the reflection of rays back through the retina.
 If this light gets refracted back, then result in blurring of vision (object will not be seen
clearly).
 Also have phagocytic function.

• Layer 2: photoreceptor layer-

 Comprised of two types of phoreceptor neurons, rods and cones.
 Each rod and cone is divided into outer segment, inner segment
and a synaptic zone.
 The outer and inner segments form the layer of rods and cones.
 The outer segment are modified cilia and are made up of regularly
arranged piles of flattened discs or saccules composed of
membrane.
 In cones, saccules are formed by unfolding of the cell membrane
but in rods , the discs are separated from the cell membrane.
 The discs or saccule contain the photosensitive pigment (rhodopsin
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Rods are extremely sensitive to light and are receptors for dim light (scotopic)vision and
black-and-white vision; while the cones are responsible for bright light (photopic) vision, high
visual acuity and for colour vision.
 Rods named for thin, rod like appearance;
 Its outer segment constantly renewed by formation of new discs at inner edge.
 Cones generally have conical shape and its renewal is diffused i.e. occur at multiple sites in
the outer segment.
 The inner segment is rich in mitochondria.
 Cone’s inner segment is thick, oval in shape and is larger. towards inner side both rods and
cones pierce the external limiting membrane.

• Layer 3: external limiting membrane-

 It is formed by glial tissues; it is the continuation of internal limiting membrane and is
pierced by rods and cones.

• Later 4: outer nuclear layer-

 Formed by nucleus of rods and cones.

• Layer 5: outer synaptic layer-

 Formed by synapse between the ends of rods and cones with dendrites of bipolar cells and
horizontal cell processes.
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• Layer 6: inner nuclear layer-
• It contains-
• Bipolar cells
• Horizontal cells which connectone receptor cell to other receptor
cell; and
• Amacrine cells- it processes make synaptic contacts with dendrites
of both ganglion and bipolar cells, and connect ganglion cells to one
another.
• Layer 7: inner synaptic layer-
• This is a cosiderable overall convergence of photoreceptors (rods
and cones) on bipolar cells and that of bipolar cells on ganglion
cells.
• The synapse between the axon of bipolar cells with the dendrites of
ganglion cells occur in this layer.
• It is the site of major processing of the visual image.
• The selective responsiveness to motion or direction of motion is a
function of the amacrine cell system.
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• Layer 8: ganglion layer-
 Single layer of round cells.

• Layer 9: optic nerve-

 Formed by joining the axons of ganglion cells; here all the axon runs parallel.

• Layer 10: internal limiting membrane-

 Separates the retina from the vitreous humour.
 Formed by the glial tissues.

• Crystalline lens:
• Is a circular biconvex transparent body enclosed within a capsule.
• Lies behind the pupil and held in its position with the help of suspensory ligaments,
other end of which is attached to the ciliary bodies.
• Helps in the formation of image on the retina by altering the curvature of its
anterior surface. the central core of the lens possesses higher refractive index than
does the remainder.
• It has no blood supply but satisfies its low metabolic requirements by taking up
substances from the aqueous substances from the aqueous humour.
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• Aqueous humour:
• It is a thin watery fluid (pH 7.1-7.3), contained in the anterior and posterior
chambers of the eye.
• It is formed from the capillaries of the ciliary processes.
• It provides nutrition to all the avascular structure of the eye i.e. the cornea and
lens.

• It also maintains intraocular pressure at a constant level, thereby helps in normal

image forming mechanisms.

• Vitreous humour:
• A clear amorphous (shapeless) transparent gel, containing albumin and hyaluronic
acid, is present in the interior of the eyeball between the lens and the retina.

• Hyaluronic acid responsible for the high viscosity of the vitreous.

• It prevents the walls of the eyeball from collapsing.

• It maintains intraocular pressure and keeps the intraocular structures in position,

thus helps in normal focusing of the image at retina.
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• Physiological events of vision consists of following:

Refraction of light entering the eye
Focusing of image on the retina by accommodation
of lens
Convergence of image
Photo-chemical activity in retina and conversion
into neural impulse
Processing in brain and perception
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• Refraction of light entering the eye-
 Light wave travels parallel to each other but they bend when passes
from one medium to another. This phenomenon is called refraction.
 Before light reach retina it passes through cornea, aqueous humor, lens
vitrous humor, so refraction takes place in every medium before it falls
on retina.

• Focusing of image on the retina by accommodation of lens-

 Accommodation is a reflex process to bring light rays from object into
perfect focus on retina by adjusting the lens.
 For accommodation to view closer object, ciliary muscle contract and
lens become thick which causes focus on closer object.
 Similarly, when distant object is viewed, ciliary muscles relaxes, so the
tension of ligament become greater which pull lens and lens become
thinner, due to which image forms on retina.
 The normal eye is able to accommodate light from object about 25 cm
to infinity.
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• Convergence of image-
• Human eye have binocular vision, it means
although we have two eye, we perceive single
image.
• In binocular vision, two eye ball turns slightly
inward to focus a close object so that both
image falls on corresponding points on retina
at same time. This phenomenon is called
convergence.
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• Photo-chemical activity in retina and conversion into neural impulse-
• Photochemical activity in rods:
 Rods contains light sensitive pigment-rhodopsin.

 Rhodopsin is a molecule formed by combination of a protein scotopsin and a light sensitive small molecule retinal
(retinene).

 Retinene (retinal) is a carotenoid molecule and is derivative of vitamin A (retinol); and is the light absorbing part of
all visual photopigments.

 Retinal exists in two isomeric form- cis and trans according to light condition.

 The extra cellular fluids surrounding rod cells contains high concentration of Na+ ion and low concentration of K+
ions while concentration of Na+ is low and K+ is high inside rod cells. The concentration is maintained by Na-K pump.
 In resting phase, K+ tends to move outside the rod cells creating slightly –ve charge inside.

 When light is falls on rod cell, it is absorbed by rhodopsin and it breaks into scotopsin and 11 cis- retinal. The process
is known as bleaching.

 11 cis-retinal absorb photon of light and change into all trans-retinal which inturn activates scotopsin into enzyme.

 This reaction produces large amount of transducin which activates another enzyme phosphodiesterase.
 Phosphodiesterase hydrolyses cGMP which causes to cease the flow of Na+ ion inside rod cell. This causes increased
negative charge inside cell creating hyperpolarized state.
 Hyperpolarized rod cells transmit the neural signal to bipolar cell.
 Bipolar cell, amacrine cell and ganglion cell process the neural signal and generate action potential to transmit to
brain via optic nerve.
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• Photochemical activity in cones:

 The neural activity in cone cell is similar to that of rod cell but there
are three different types of cone cells and each cone cell contains
different photo-pigment and are sensitive to red, green and blue.
 Like rod, cone cell contains iodopsin as photo-pigment which is
composed of 11 cis-retinal and photopsin.
 The perception of color depends upon which cone are stimulated.
 The final perceived color is combination of all three types of cone
cell stimulated depending upon the level of stimulation.
 The proper mix of all three color produce the perception of white
and absence of all color produce perception of black.
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• Photopigments respond to light in the following cyclical process-

 In darkness, retinal has a bent shape called cis-retinal. When cis-
retinal absorbs photon of light it straightens to form trans-retinal.
This cis to trans conversion is called isomerization .
 After retinal isomerization several unstable chemical intermediates
form and disappear. These chemical changes lead to production of a
receptor potential.
 In about a minute trans-retinal completely separates from opsin.
the final products look colourless so this part of the cycle is termed
bleaching of photopigment.
 An enzyme called retinal isomerase converts trans-retinal back to
cis- retinal.
 The cis-retinal then can bind to opsin reforming a functional
photopigment. This part of the cycle - resynthesis of a
photopigment – is called regeneration.
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• Light and dark adaptation:
 When one emerges from dark surroundings into the sunshine light adaptations occur i.e. visual
system adjusts in seconds to the brighter environment by decreasing its sensitivity.
 But, when one enters a dark room then visual system undergoes dark adaptation i.e. its sensitivity
increases slowly over many minutes.
 Bleaching and regeneration of photopigments account for same (but not all) of the sensitivity
changes during light and dark adaptation.
 As the light level increases, more and more photopigment is bleached. While light is bleaching
some photopigment molecules, others are being regenerated.
 In daylight, regeneration of rhodopsin cannot keep up with the bleaching process so rods
contribute little to daylight vision.
 in contrast, cone photopigments regenerate rapidly enough that some of the cis form is always
present, even in the very bright light.
 If the light level decreases abruptly, sensitivity increases rapidly at first and then more slowly. In
complete darkness, full regeneration of cone photopigmentsoccur during the first 8 minutes of the
dark adaptation.
 Rhodopsin regenerates slowly and the visual sensitivity increases until even a single photon can be
detected.
 At very low light levels, such as starlight, objects appear as shades of gray because only the rods are
functioning.
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• Processing in brain and perception:

 All visual information originates in retina due to stimulation of rods and cones are
conveyed to brain.
 Retina contains 5 types of cells and they are interconnected by synapse. These
cells are photoreceptor cells (rod and cone), bipolar cell, ganglion cell, horizontal
cell and amacrine cell.
 Photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells and ganglion cells transmit impulse directly from
retina to brain.
 The nerve fiber of ganglion cells from both eyes carries impulse along two optic
nerve (cranial nerve II )
 The optic nerves meets at optic chiasma where fibers from nasal half of each
retina cross-over but fibers from temporal half of each retina do not cross-over.
 The optic nerve after crossing the chiasma is called as optic tract.
 Each optic tract continues posteriorly until it synapse with neuron in thalamus
called lateral geniculate body which project to primary visual cortex in occipital
lobe of cerebrum and image is perceived.
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