Function is a rule of relationship between two variables in which one is assumed to be dependent and the other independent variable ‘Value of one variable quantity (dependent variable), which we ‘might call y, depends on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable), which we might call x. Since the value of y is completely determined by the value of x, we say that y is a function of x and represent it mathematically as y= f(x). Here f represents the function, xis the independent variable & 1yis the dependent variable, (1). By giving a formula such as y= x? that uses a dependent variable y to denoie the value ofthe function. (2) By giving a formula such as f{x)=x* that defines a function symbol f to name the function. ‘Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f(x) 1y=sin x. Here function is sine, x is the independent variable. 1 Various Element (1) Power function: y= x" (2) Trigonometric function: y= sinx, y = cosx, ete (3) Exponential function: y= a", a= positive number called base number. (4) Logarithmic function: y =1og x Example 1. The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius ris siven by the function Vir)=(4/3iztr)'. The volume of a ball of radius 2m is Setaion. vate sana «Zan! In navigation and astronomy, angles ‘are measured in degrees, but in caloulus it is best to use units called radians because of the way they simplify later calculations. Let ACB be a central angle in a circle of radius r, asin figure. ‘Then the angle ACB or @ is defined in radius as — Acchogtt 9, Radius ~ Oy 2m Radian = 360° e Angle Conversion Formulas 1 Degree =F (=0.02 Radian Degree "5 Radian 1 Radian = 57 Degreesic Mathematics and Vectors ‘An angle in the xp-plane is said to be in standard position if its, vertex lies at the origin and its inital ray lies along the positive x: axis (ig) Angles measured counter-clockwise from the postive x- axis are assigned positive measures: angles measured clockwise are assigned negalive measures. y ¥ On ae 4 y 4 2.3 Six Trigonometric Ratios ‘The trigonometric function of a general angle @ are defined interns of x, y and r Sine: sing = Perpendicular _ y Hypotenuse ~ r Hyp. Cosecant: cosecg = HYP y Base _ x r Cosine:cos = BB =* —Secant: sec = HP. =f mat ‘Hyp. Base x Tangent: tand= Pe: ¥ Cotangent:cot@ = BA. = X Bose” x Pep. y 2.4 For Finding Trigonometric Ratio of Obtuse Angles Step 1 Identify the quadrant in which angle lis. Step 2+ (1) Mt angle =(n#t@) where nis an integer. Then trigonometric function of (nt @)= same trigonometric function of @ and sign will be decided by ASTC Rule “The ASTE Rule y Quadrant P 1 Quadant useful ule for remembering when the S basic trigonometric functions are postive sin postive | allpostive and negative ithe ASTC rue * 1 Quadeant tan positive | cos postive (2) H angle =[(2n41)5-+0]where n isan integer. Then vemnene tniy a [ans 8o)eomtnany trigonometric function of @ and sign will be decided by ASTC Rule, 2.5 Useful Values Degree | [30° ae a | see | | om | rae | aase 180" Radins | 0 | 6 | a7mis0 | wa | santso | na | x2 | ana | an x sino | 0 12 3 | ae Be | 1 | 82) ae 0 oso | 1 | vee | 45 | ane wz |o | -1w|-v2 tne | 0 | avo 34 1 | = |] -1 0 2.6 Useful Trigonometric Identities : (1) cos? @+sin? (2) L+tan? o=sec? @ (3) 1+c0t*@=cosec’@ (4) sin20=2sinocoso (5) 0820 = cos? 8 ~sin® @= 2cos? 0. (6) sin(A +B) = sin AcosB +cos Asin B (7) c0s(A+B)= c0s Acos B -sin Asin B tan A+ tanB 8) tania + 6) = AY tan (8) tant : I-tanAtanB(9) sin(A~ B) = sin AcosB ~ cos Asin B (10) cos|A~B)= cos Acos B+ sin AsinB tanA-tanB. (1) tanta B= end (12) sin{A + B)+sin(A~ B) = 2sin Acos B (13) cos{A~B)~cos(A+ B) = 2sin Asin B (14) sin(A + B)~sin(A ~ B) = 2cos Asin B (15) cos(A ~ B) + ens( A+B) = 2c0s Acos B ce D (16) sinC+sinD =2sin—*” cos! 2 C+D .c 2 C+D..c-D sin (17) cosC + cosD= 2cos: (18) sinC-sinD = 2cos 2 C+D. c-D (19) cosC—cosD = —2sin: 3. Differentiation 3.1 Finite Difference ‘The finite difference between two values of a physical quantity is represented by 4 notation, Example: Ditference in two values of y is written as Ay as given in the table below. Sa 100 100 100 w 50 99 995 AV = va=i 50 1 05 3.2 Infinitely Small Difference ‘The infinitely small difference means very-very small difference and this difference is represented by ‘c! notation instead of ‘8’ Example: infinitely small difference in the values or y is uritien as ‘dy’ yy = 100 and y, = 99,99999999,, ‘Then dy = 0.000000. (00001. 3.3 Definition of Differentiation ‘Another name for differentiation is derivative. Suppose y is a function of x or y= flx) Differentiation of y with respect to x is denoted by symbol fe) ye? where (x)= = Instantaneous rate of charge of y wir x Soles ge of dx is very small change in x and dy is corresponding very small change in v. 3.4 Slope of A Line ™ It is the tangent of angle made by a line with the postive direction of x-axis, measured in anticlockwise direction, Slope=tan@ (In 1* quadiant tan is +ue & 2" quadrant tan d is ve) In Figure A) slope is positive @<90° (1 quadrant) Basic Mathematics and Vectors 3 y Fig (A) In Figure (B) slope is negative @ > 90° (2nd quadrant) wi Fig 3.5 Average Rates of Change: Given an arbitrary function y= f(x) we calculate the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval (x.x#4x) by dividing the change in value of y, ie. Ay=flx+Ax)~flx),by length of interval Ax over which the change occurred ‘The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the “Ay _ fict Ax) flr) Ax ax ay Ax interval {x,x-+ Ax] cone, «2% stan «Supe te ine PQ. ‘Therefore, we can say that average rate of change of y with respect 10 x is equal to slope ofthe line joining P and Q. In triangle QPR tan 6+4 ic Mathematics and Vectors 3.6 The Derivative of a Function We know that, average rate of change of y w.rt ‘Ay fix ax) fix) a AX the limit ofthis ratio exists as Ax > 0, then itis called the derivative of given function f(x) and is denoted as, fix+ax)—flx) ax (1) Secant : A secant to a curve is @ straight line, which intersects the curve at any two points = ae L(x) oe y PSecant (2) Tangent : ‘A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve at a particular point. Tangent is a limiting case of secant which intersects the curve at two overlapping points. I value of Ax is gradually reduced, then the point Q will ‘move nearer to the point P. Ifthe process is continuously repeated value of Axwill be infinitely small and secant PQ to the given curve will become a tangent at point P. av) _ de Terre fn (22) = 28 We can say that differentiation of y with respect to x secant slope ofthe tangent at point lx.) wy tno 3.7 Important Rules for Differentiation (1) The derivative of every constant function is ero. I ¢ is 4 constant then Le=0 4 (2) In isa real number, then 2x" = mx" a (8) Iu isa differentiable function of x. and ¢ is a constant d du then (eu) = €S%. In particular, if m8 @ postive integer, then Steet won ie qlenl= (4) The derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions {s the sum of their derivatives tty tan type te eg la & sett (8) Hy and » ae dilzentcle al x, hen he pod of do, du sn tte a ty =u te de dx of the product uv is u times the derivative of v plus utimes the derivative of u. In prime notation (uw)'= we'+0u! (6) Iu and v are differentiable at x, and u(x) #0, then the quotient u/v is differentiable at x, and du # “| Ax ae alo (7) Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions a “jglconn = sinc 4 cnx) = cose (a geben) a 2 4 secx) = secxtanx (iy Seltamx) = sec? x; (Wy) F(seex)= seextan d an pay (0) cots) =-cosects (i) 2 (cosecx) = -cosecx colx (8). Derivative of Logerthm and exponential functions Gitog,x)=2 3 A (erect Rlean== = Ze) (9) Chain Ditferentiation ay 4s Wye fu) and u f(x) than Sem Bx Se 8.8 Double Differentiation It { is eferentiable function, then its derivative J is ako a function, so. f/ may have a derivative of its own, denoted by (F))=f". This new function” is called the second derivative of f because it isthe derivative of the derivative of f. Using Lefbniz notation, we write the second derivative of y= f(x) as a(e)-#2 be (de) x? Another notation is “(x)= D; fix) = D? fx 3.9 Maxima and Minima Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown in the figure Wt becomes maximum at x and py ‘minimum at x, At these points the tangent fo the curve is parallel to the xeaxis and hence its slope is tan@=0. Thus, at a maximum or a dy Slope= 2 =0 =0) asin ‘nti ems te ipa ta anjattr te maim it epi Ts, 2 dene stam rete te fan or 2 ete ta ‘ d (ds ‘ mime, (42) 0 ammo Slope = m= tand; m>m,>m=0>m>m, fo *8 For maxima, as x increases then slope decreases “The quantity 2 the rate of change ofthe slope. It is writen» © a Conditions for maxima are ay ay ) Bao i) co ae ww (2), Minima Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive, Hence with the increases of x. The slope i increasing that means the rate of change of slope with respect to x is ay itive. Hence, (4) 0 a aa)? ©] Fer minima, as xincreases then slope increases Concitons for minima are dy i) S250 wy Quite often itis known from the physical situation whether the y we. Geo quantity is © maximum or © minimum, The tet on may then be omitted a 4. Integration Jn mathematics, for each mathematical operation, there has bbeen defined! an inverse operation. For example: Inverse operation fof addition ts subtraction, inverse operation of multiplication is division and inverse operation of square root is square. Similarly, there is an inverse operation for differentiation which is known as integration 4.1 Anti-derivatives or Indefinite Integrals Definitions : A function F(x) is an antiederivative of a function f{x) if Fe) for all x in the domain of J. The set ofall anti-derivatives of § isthe indefinite integral of f with respect to x, denoted by Basic Mathematics and Vectors 5 “The function is the integrand ee the variable of integration tial son — J F(x) Integral of f Example: fix)=x° then fx)=3x? So, the integral of 3x? is x? Similaiy, if f(x)=x8-+4 then x)= So, the integral of 3x? is x3+4 Therefore general integral of 3x? constant. One anti-derivaive F of a function f, the other anti arivatives of J differ rom F by a constant, we indicate this in integral notation by the following way : Jflrde= Fix) +e i) The constant C is the constant of integration or arbitrary constant, Equation () 6 read, “The indefinite integral of J with respect to xis Flx)+C." When we find Flx)+C, we say that we hove integrated and evaluated the integral 4.2 Integral Formula Indefinite Integra A) fetes ne met Is x9+¢, where ¢ is (2) foc= frde=x+C (preci case) (3) [sec xdbe=tanx+C (4) corectxdx = —colx + (5) flutvidee fude+ fode (6) secxtanxdx= seex+C (7) foun fu6 Basic Mathematics and Vectors (8) Jeoseexcotxdk =-coseex +C eben tebe bt ©) flax+brée= (esa ; mon tfacee) 4040) we (20) frte= f log, x+C ge aloss(ax+b) 1 be = MORLOHD) og art) 40 00 Vem ee a (12) fetdx= e+ (19 forace fe ad a Flere) 06 ford jog.e (18) [since = ~cosx +C (46) fsinncde = 24.6 (17) feasxdy = sine +C (18) foosmede = 4 4.3 Definite Integration or Integration with Limits ‘The function is the integrand SS moter dade “ac Upper limit of, integration | ‘of integration oe Lower limit of Mert lntegral of {trom a to b Jfixide =[alx)lf = ab) fa) where g(x) is the anti-derivative of f(x) Le. g'(x) = f(x) 4.4 Application of Definite Integral: Calculation of Area of a Curve From graph shown in figure, if we divide whole area in Infinitely small strips of che width We take a strip at x position of cx width Soy Small area ofthis stip da = fix)eb: So, the total area between the curve and x-axis = sum of area ofall strips fixie 5. Algebra 5.1 Quadratic Equation: An equation of second degree is called @ quadratic equation, Standard quadratic equation ax? tox te= Here is called the coefficient of x?, b is called the coelficient of x and ¢ is a constant term, x is the variable whose value (roots of the equation) are to be determined ~bi Vb? —4ac 2a Roots ofthe equation are: x = ‘This formula can be wtten as: — Coeftcent of x. [Coetficent of x — 4(Coetficient of x) 2 Coefficient of x°) Note: If « and # be the roots of the quadratic equation then sum of roots a+ 6 =—" and product of roots = © 5.2 Binomial Theorem: If n is any number postive, negative o ration and x is any real number, such that x <1 ie x les between = and +1 then according to binomial theorem (Lt xy atc MO ge, IN DIN 2) oa 2 3 Here 2! (Factorial 2)= 2 x 1, 3! (Factorial 3)= 3x 2x1 and 41 (Factorial 4)= 4 <3 x21 Note: I | <<1 then only the fit two terms are significant. Its so because the values af second and the higher order terms being very-very small, can be neglected. So, the expression can be writen as (ty a-xy a-xr" 5.3 Arithmetic Progression: It is a sequence of numbers Which are amranged in increasing order and having a constant difference between them, Example: 1,3.5,7,9, 11,13, .. 02, 46,8, 10,12 In general arithmetic progression can be wiitlen af 4.00, 5 04,8 (1) term of arithmetic progression @, = a +(n—H)d 4 =Fist tem, n=Number of terms, Aifference = (0, ~ ao) of (ag~0,) oF (a3 ~2,) d=Common (2), Sum of arithmetic progression 8, = lea +(n—Nal = Flay +a)5.4 Geometric Progression: Its a sequence of numbers in Which every term is obtained by multiplying the previous term by a constant quantity. This constant quantity is called the common ratio, Example: 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 ‘or 5,10, 20, 40, £0, . In general, geometric progression can be written as a, ar, art oF at. Here; a= first term, = common ratio aur") (1) Sum ofr’ terms of GP. S, = SO litre) ate? =I) a 52S Wr>) (2) Sum of infinite terms of GP. S_ = lifr<1] sa itr>a) 5.5 Some Common Formulae of Algebra (1) (a+ bf =o + BF + Zab (2) (a-b}? =o? + bF-2ab (8) (a+ b+ ch =a + B+ e+ Zab + be + 2ca (4) (a+ 6) (a-b) =a (8) (a+ by =a + bP + Sab(a + b) (6) (a-b}* = a~ 6 - 3abla-b) (7) (a+ by (a~b) = dab (8) (a+ by + (a- bf = 21a + BF) (9) a? -b* =(a-b)(a® +b? +ab) (10) a? +b? =(a+b)(o? +? ~ab) 5.6 Componendo and Dividendo Method: If =. arb a-b e+d od 6. Logarithm logarithm of a number with respect to a given base & the ‘power to which the base must be raised to represent that number. Ma" = then log, N=x Here x is called the logarithm of N to the base a. ‘There are two system of logarithm: Logarithm to the base 10 ‘are called common logarithms whereas logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithm. They are written as In Conversion of natural log into common log: log, x= 2:2026logy9 x Important formulae of logarithm: (2) logymn)=Iog, m-+log,n (Produc formule) 2 ton, =toa,m-loa.n (Quotient formula) (Power frm} (Base change frm) (3) 109, m* =nlog,m (4) 1og,m=10g, mlog, b Graphs ‘A graph isa line, straight or curved which shows the variation of one quantity wrt other, which are interrelated with each-other. In a relation of two quantities, the quantity which is made to alter at will; is called the independent variable and the other ‘quantity which varies as a result of this change is called the dependent variable. Conventionally, in any graph, the independent variable (ie. cause) is represented along x-axis and dependent variable (ie. effect) is represented along y-axis, 7.1 Some important graphs for various equations 0 yemx m= tan = slope of line with x-axis pemx+e = Positive intercept on y-axis and positive slope [Negative intercept and positive slope vA e{Ne yeomere —rn Postive intercept and Negative slope8 Basic Mathematics and Vectors vrakx ‘Symmetric parabola about postive X-axis 0 x y ‘Symmetric parabola about negative X-axis xtaky ‘Symmetric parabola about postive Y-axis v! d x” x ‘Symmetric parabola about negative Y-axis cS Asymmetric parabola Asymmetric parabola YA yA Ore IN i, onsen cau eet Be SS ‘cosine curveBasic Mathematics and Vectors 9 ‘Symmetrical about opposite quadrant ie. origin Graph of f(x)=x*" symmetric about y-axis Graph of f(x) =+ symmetric at about opposite quadrants %» raph of fs) = Zp symmetric about y ass yan vA yetan x Greph of (x)= tan x yan? 8. General Formulae for Area and Volume a 2 ‘Area of square = (side)? ‘Area of rectangle = length x breadth (2) notion =! xe a r 6 Area enclosed by a circle where ris radius Surface area of sphere = 4x1? (6) Surface area of cube =61?; where L isa side of cube (7) Surface area of cuboid = 2{(Lxb)+(bxh)+(hxL}; where L=length, b=breadth, h= height (8) Area of curved surface of eylinder = 2a rl where r = radius, = length of cylinder (9) Volume of cube = L? (10) Volume of cuboid = Lxbxxh 4s (211) Volume of sphere = 3 41 (12) Volume of evlinder = 171 1 Volume of cone =—ar'h (13) Volume of 3 Vector 9.1 Definition: Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors. Example: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, {oree, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular velocity ‘The physical quantity AREA’ is a vector with its direction, ‘along the outward normal to the surface. Magnitude is also called modulus9.2 Graphical Representation of a Vector: A directed line segment is called a vector, denotes as AB (read as AB vector) In printing we can denote AB as (bold letters). Even if you have to write BA vector the arrow head above would always point from left torightie, BA 10 Basic Mathematics and Vectors But mathematical, AB =~ BA ‘Aso t A and B be two vectors, then [|= A= magnitude of A = eng of A B= magnitude of B = enah of B Directed line Support segment | 4 5 Initial/Stare ‘Terminating Point Tail point /Head 9.3 Types of Vector (1) Equal Vectors: Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same direction Geometrically if head of one vector coincides with the head of other and so do the tails coincide then the vectors are said to be equal WA=B, then A=B, aluays, But, A=B doesn't atuays imply A=B (2) Parallel Vector: Two vectors Aand B are seid to be parallel when (i) Both have same direction (il) Magnitude of one is scalar multiple of magnitude of the other Example : B= 4A i.e, Mogitue of Bis four tines the rmagatude of A and both have some drection. A Baa A (3) Anti-Parallel Vectors: Two vectors A and Bare said to be anti-parallel when, (i) Both have opposite direction, (i) Magnitude of one is a scalar multiple of the magnitude of the other. Example : B=-4A Magnitude of B is four times the rmagutude of Aad both have oppose direction (4) Collinear Vectors: When the vectors under consideration can share the same support or having @ common support then the considered vectors are colinear. A —- aA a —— Common Support eenenennentnne Shared by A.B and & (5) Zero Vector (3): A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) isa zero vector. Properties of 0 (Ase AB) i) WA+B=0 > AB (ii) KO-=6 fread as k times 6 equals 3) (where, kis any scalar) (iv) OA 23 {read as zero times A equals zero vector] (y AsOed+A= (6) Unit Vector: A vector divided by its magnitude is @ unit vector ( NA eeeeaees, Magnitude Birection ingredients Unit vector for As A read as A cap A carat / A hat). Unit vector for B i B Thus, we conclude that unit vector gives us the direction. Note: No units are to be attached like Newton (N), msec” ‘metre etc) with a unit vector Le. unit vector is dimensionless physical quantity,(7) Orthogonal Unit Vectors Base Vectors: {,j and k are called orthogonal unit vectors, These vectors must form a Right Handed Trin (it coordinate system such that when we cc the fingers of ight hand from x toy then we must get the direction of along the thumb) = devi. abe uv i wim (8) Negative Vector: A vector is said to be negative of a sven vector if its magnitude isthe same as that of the given vector but direction is reversed e.g. the negative vector of G is denoted by -a It Bis negative of &, then 5 ea (9) Co-Terminus Vectors: Co-Terminus vectors are those vectors which have common terminal point. &, 5,2 (10) Coplanar Vector: Vectors are said to be coplanar if ty sent sine’ ox esas’ plane, agg A, Bana G Remember that any two vectors alvays Hein the sare plan. (11) Polar Vector: Vectors producing straight line linear ‘effect are called polar vectors e.g. force, momentum, velocity displacement. (12) Axial Vectors / Pseudo Vectors: (Virtual, Imaginary): The rotational effect of a polar vector gives rise to a ‘new vector called axial vector (acting along the axis of rotation). 9.4 Angle Between Two Vectors: Whenever angle between two vectors isto be taken, we must make sure that either heads coincide or their tails coincide ive. if heads coincide or tails coincide then intemal angle is the angle between two vectors (whether acute or obtuse) as in (1), (2), (6) and (6), If heads coincide with tail then external angle is the angle between the two vectors as in (3) and (4). Basic Mathematics and Vectors 11 a) e (2) 6 (3) ° (4) @ (5) a (6) e Example: ange borween A and Bis then {i) Angle between ~Aand Bis (180°- @) (li) Angle between A and ~B is (180° ~@) (ili) Angle between ~A and -Bis 0 9.5 Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors: If two rnon- zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in same order then the resultant is given by the closing side of triangle in opposite order i.e. OA+ AB: °12 Basic Mathematics and Vectors ‘Magnitude and Direction of Resultant Vector (1) Magnitude In ABN AN BN = AN = BN coso= 5 sino= => AN=Beo@ | > BN=Bsind In AOBN, we have OB? = ON" + BN* RP 2 (A+ Boos of? +(Bsin gy? RP =A? +B? cos’ +2ABcos0+B" sin’ @ RP AP + B?(cos? O+ sin” 6)+ 2AB cos y uuu RY =A? +B? +2ABeos0 = R=VA? +B" +2ABeose 1 Rmakes an angle a with A, then on BN_ BN ___Bsino AOBN, lane = ON OAs AN ~ A+ Bcosd 9.6 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors (2), Directios If two non-zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal ‘of the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection ofthe ‘wo vectors > R= A+B? +24Bcoso Rolitja|AvB|= JA? B* 4 2ABeono (2) Direction: (CN __ Bsing ON” A+Bcosd Note: Since Rgin SF'SRyay => (A-BISRS(A +B) H A>B, then = A-BS|A+B| [Allis |A+a) < 14418) > [Al-181< 1A+8] @1A+8] < 141418] called triangle inequaliy 9.7 Polygon Law of Vector Addition: Wa number of non-zero vectors are represented by the (n=1) ‘of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by the closing or the n side ofthe polygon taken in opposite order, So, +B+C+D+E OA +AB+BC +CD+DE =O Note: Ifthe vectors form a closed n sided polygon with all the sides in the same order then the resultant is 0. P+Q+R-0 9.8 Rectangular Components: (1) In Plane: Consider a inclined to the x-axis at angle @. 1 and Fi, are the components (projections) of ff along aia and y.ais then by parallelogram law of vectors Reh, ‘0 Since (i)Basic Mathematics and Vectors 13 Aiv) where ¢, m,n are called Direction Cosines of the R RESRE RE 1 RESR + co? + cos? f+ ens? y Important => R= Ricosi +sing}) If €, m,n axe called Direction Cosines of the vector, then Bm? +n =1 = cost a+ cos? B+ cos y= => RR=Ricos6i +sin@j) => R=cosei +sing} Squaring (i) and (iv) and adding, we get aa RE+RE = R* cost 0+ R* sin? since A-& JIETRE So, cout and |A Ble (AP +B? + 2AB cos [A? + BP + 2ABcos(180-0) +B) = RE+RE=R? oR co ging) = Be Semensnnhse ial eee R “Magnitude of vector Similarly, sin Rag = A+(-B) Since, cos{180~0) =-cos@ 4 [a + B® -2ABcos @ where @ is angle R makes with x-axis Buin 80 (2) In Free Space: = ema dk Beat ay Rak RR = i+Rj+Rk . ay eee If Rmakes an angle a with x-axis, 8 with yaxis and y with A-Beo8 z-axis, then y ile. if two vectors A and B are inclined to each other at an angle @ then Fam © A+ Bd,» Bigger Diagonal of parallelogram Rag = A~ Bd, = Smaller Diagonal of parallelogram AsB and d, =A-B jeditde ee $id dy) & B14 Basic Mathematics and Vectors 9.10 Vector Multiplication of Two Vectors: (1) Det Product Mathematically, A,B = ABcos@ Geometrical Interpretation = A.B = Ax (projection of B in the direction of A) ‘Acosd Bead BA = BiAcos6) A(Beos 8) => BA=Bx(Projection of Alin the direction of B) Properties of Dot Product ‘+ Dot product is commutative in nature => A.B= B.A = Dot product = A\B+6) resped to sum se ice. vectors are parallel then A, ‘AB, i.e. when the vectors are parallel A.B is just the simple product of the magnitudes of A and B + Dot product of vector with itsel is equal lo the square of the magnitude of the vector > AA =(A)\Ajeos0= AAA + 6-180 ic. anti-parallel then AB=AB(-1) > AB=-AB (+2 e08 180" A ice. if two vectors are anti-parallel then their dot product ‘equals then negative of simple product of magnitudes of vectors 2 @=%" Ie. AB= ABcos0 =| ‘Le. vectors perpendicular <> Dot product= 0 vectors are vectors are perpendicular || ]eos 0. Therefore, in general. keel + ij-i||jlo0s90° = ij =(1)(1)(0) . Therefore, in general ij=0jk=Oki=0 of ji=Okj=0,ik=0 and B. a AeA lt aieay +B,j+B,h oe any to vectors, then ABaAj+aj+ai.8)+8,+8,0 > AB=AB,+4,8,+AB, «Since AB=ABeos@ and -1 Adis lie @=0)) maximum at cos = AB is minimum at @= 180%) = (AB) an SAB S (AB )yy = - ABS ABS AB cos=-1 (ie. + WAZA U+A+ AK and B=B,i4+B,j+B,kand 0 62 between A and B where, A, 3 en cos = AE = ABcos Th ABcos0. (2) Cross Product or Vector Product Mathematically, Ax B= ABsin@fi Direction of fi is given by RHTR (stated earlier), i indicates direction of Ax and ~i indicates direction of BxA, be. AxB=-BxA So, cross product is Non-commutative ia nature Axde ABsn@i > |AxBle ABsing 3 |BxApaasne | AxBle| Bx A= aBsina lL syplane + AxBH Bx aBsine ‘+ fi is amew vector perpendicular to A as well as B {Perpendicular vectors have dot product = 0} =0 Hence, (Ax 8) is new vedtor perpendicular to Aas welles ‘« fiis pemendicularto A as well as B (where i indieates direction of Axi) AxB is anew vector to Aand or (BxA), or (BxA),ssic Mathematics and Vectors 15 E Geometrical Interpretation of Cross Product Fi Half of magnitude of eross product equals the area of triangle with adjacent sides A and B. 1 1 aps ‘Area = F(A)(Bsind)= 5 (ABsin&) le. Area of tangle = | AxB| |A. A, 8, By, = AxB=i1A,5,-8,4.)-i14.0,-A.B.)+81A.8, -B.A,) Direction 30° NW = 30" toward: he north of west Area of parallelogram = (Base) x = ae) 85% SW = 35° toward the south of west = AlBsin 9) = ABsind ‘ko, Are of paralleloaram | AxB 3 1c xd | Properties of Vector Product + Vector Produc Noo commutative te, Ax = (AxB)+(BxA) =0 + ios produ dst wih espe 0 sum AxlBG)= Ax + AxG Note: AxB+CxAs AB+C) AxB-Ax Ax(6-E) Instead, AxB+Cx > AxB+ Ex © A and B are parallelie, 6 =0%,then Ax = ABsindi = AxB=6 Vectors are parallel cost product equal o 6. + 1A and B are parallel ie. 0 = 180", AxB= ABsin180°)h > Axb=3 (sin180" = 0) Vectors are antiparallel > eross product equal to 0 « Axi= AAsinoii > AxA=0 Ponts Toe: i.e, cos product of vector with itself is 0. Inany AABC with sides 4.6, 5 # ixin6, jxj20 bxk=d i” « ixjsk, xi=i, ixk=i For any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle For a Right handed triad system containing the side othe length ofthe sie i constant Curl fingers from x to y, thumb gives directions of z Curl fingers from x to 2, thumb gives direction of x Curl fingers from 2 to x, thumb gives direction of y + WASA +A Ak 8x8, +B,)4B. ijk > AxB=|A, A, A B, B,16 Basic Mathematics and Vectors (lteter ee iiiey eerie A vector ean have any number, even infinite components (minimum 2 components) GA vector can have only two rectangular components in, plane and only three rectangular components in space G_ Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically. G Scalars are added, subtracted or divided algebraically, G_ Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be divided. G1. Unit vector gives the direction of vector. D._ Unit vector has no unit. Far example, velacity of an object isms" due East. ie, 7=Sms due East So unit vector @ has no unit as East is not a physical quantity. Q AxA=0. Abo A-A=0 But AxAeA-A Because Ax ALA and A-A is collinear with A Q. Multiplication of a vector with ~1 reverses its direction. then A = B but A Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can bbe zero is two. Minimum number of coplanar vectors whose resultant is zero is three. Minimum number of non-coplanar vectors whose resultant is zero is four. Two vectors are parallel to each other if Ax B =0. Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if AB =0 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and force are polar vectors. Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular ‘momentum are axial vectors. G1 Distance covered is always positive quantity. Q_ The components of a vector can have magnitude more or less than that of the vector itself The rectangular components cannot have magnitude ‘greater than that of the vector itself. When we multiply a vector with 0 the produet becomes a null vector. The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never be a null vector. 1 Three vectors not Iving in plane can never add up to give a null vector. A physical quantity which has different values indifferent directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has different values in different directions. Hence moment of inertia is @ tensor. Other examples of tensor are: refractive index, stress, strain, density etc Of AaB, then A=8,,A,=8, and A,=B, oF ae 5,8, B, O WAsd=E ort A+B+E=0, hen A,B and C tein one plan _WAxB=6, then € is perpendicular to A as wellas B G 1 |A+B|=|A-B), then angle between A and B is 90° Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when @ = 0° ie. vectors are parallel Ry, = VP? +Q + 2PQ cos 0" =|P+Q| ‘Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude. D Resuitant of two vectors will be minimum when @ = 180* ice. vectors are anti-parallel Ruy = VP+ G4 2PQ cos 180" =|P-Q| “Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to the difference of their magnitude, 1 When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then -Q40 f |PQI) ‘Thus, two vectors P and Q having different magnitudes can never be combined to give zero rewulont. From here, we conclude thet the minimum number of vectors of unequal ‘magnitude whose resultant can be zero is three. On the other fhand, the minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude whose resultant can be 2r0 is Wo. Angle between two vectors A and B is given by The vector i+j+K is equally inclined to the coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees O WALB=6, then A.BxC=0 QW ABxE=0 then A.B and 6 are coplanar. angle between A and B is 45% then A.B =| Ax OWA tA +A ttl, =0 and AAA sane Ay then the adjacent vecor are inclined 10 each other at angle 2e/n OW A+B=C and A® +B? =C®, then the angle between A and Bis 90".