Communication Back-bone

Communication through ages

Key Developments
Analog and Digital Signals
Modulations
Analog and Digital Modulation
Radio Spectrum
ITU Frequency Bands Designations
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Band
Super Low Frequency (SLF) Band
Electromagnetic spectrum & optical communication wavelength bands
Electromagnetic spectrum & optical communication wavelength bands
Transmission loss of silica fiber and optical communication wavelength bands
Optical fiber attenuation
Digital Modulation for Optical Communication
Constellation Representation
Concept of squeezing some more?
Symbols through phase modulation
Symbols through amplitude modulation
Combination of multi-level amplitudes and phases
Spectral Efficiency
Spectral Efficiency – theoretical limits
Block Diagram of optical communication
Some basic Units
Optical Sources
Light-matter interaction in semiconductors
Recombination of e-h pairs
Efficiency of career recombination
LED - Structure
LED - Structure
Double Hetero-structure design
Band-gap engineering - > Spectral width
Band-gap engineering - > Spectral width
Band-gap engineering - > Power generated by LED
LOSS
Optical Source: LED
external Quantum Efficiency
Loss due to Total Internal Reflection
two contributions –
Fresnel reflection loss and the total internal reflection loss
Some LED Parameters
WDM
multi-longitudinal mode (MLM) laser

Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Evolution of the Technology

Why WDM?
• Capacity upgrade of existing fiber networks
(without adding fibers)
• Transparency: Each optical channel can carry any
transmission format (different asynchronous bit
rates, analog or digital)
• Scalability– Buy and install equipment for
additional demand as needed
• Wavelength routing and switching: Wavelength is
used as another dimension to time and space
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Each wavelength is like a separate channel (fiber)

 Ex: SONET

TDM Vs WDM
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• Passive/active devices are needed to combine,

distribute, isolate and amplify optical power at
different wavelengths
 WDM, CWDM and DWDM
• WDM technology uses multiple wavelengths to
transmit information over a single fiber
• Coarse WDM (CWDM) has wider channel spacing
(20 nm) – low cost
• Dense WDM (DWDM) has dense channel spacing
(0.8 nm) which allows simultaneous transmission of
16+ wavelengths – high capacity
 WDM and DWDM
• First WDM networks used just two wavelengths,
1310 nm and 1550 nm
• Today's DWDM systems utilize 16, 32,64,128 or
more wavelengths in the 1550 nm window
• Each of these wavelength provide an independent
channel (Ex: each may transmit 10 Gb/s digital or
SCMA analog)
• The range of standardized channel grids includes
50, 100, 200 and 1000 GHz spacing
• Wavelength spacing practically depends on:
• laser linewidth
• optical filter bandwidth
ITU-T Standard Transmission DWDM windows

 c 
 =  2  
 
 Principles of DWDM
• BW of a modulated laser: 10-50 MHz → 0.001 nm
• Typical Guard band: 0.4 – 1.6 nm
• 80 nm or 14 THz @1300 nm band
• 120 nm or 15 THz @ 1550 nm
• Discrete wavelengths form individual channels that
can be modulated, routed and switched individually
• These operations require variety of passive and
active devices
 c 
 =  2   Ex. 10.1
 
Nortel OPTERA 640 System

64 wavelengths each carrying 10 Gb/s

DWDM Limitations
Theoretically large number of channels can be
packed in a fiber
For physical realization of DWDM
networks we need precise wavelength
selective devices
Optical amplifiers are imperative to
provide long transmission distances
without repeaters
WDM Devices
 Key Components for WDM
Passive Optical Components
• Wavelength Selective Splitters
• Wavelength Selective Couplers
Active Optical Components
• Tunable Optical Filter
• Tunable Source
• Optical amplifier
• Add-drop Multiplexer and De-multiplexer
Photo detector Responsivity
Photo detectors are
sensitive over wide
spectrum (600 nm).
Hence, narrow optical
filters needed to
separate channels
before the detection
in DWDM systems
 Passive Devices
• These operate completely in the optical
domain (no O/E conversion) and does not need
electrical power
• Split/combine light stream Ex: N X N couplers,
power splitters, power taps and star couplers
• Technologies: - Fiber based or
– Optical waveguides based
– Micro (Nano) optics based
• Fabricated using optical fiber or waveguide
(with special material like InP, LiNbO3)
Filter, Multiplexer and Router
Basic Star Coupler
May have N inputs and M outputs

• Can be wavelength selective/nonselective

• Up to N =M = 64, typically N, M < 10
Fused-Biconical coupler OR
Directional coupler

• P3, P4 extremely low ( -70 dB below Po)

• Coupling / Splitting Ratio = P2/(P1+P2)
• If P1=P2 → It is called 3-dB coupler
Fused Biconical Tapered Coupler
• Fabricated by twisting together, melting and pulling together two
single mode fibers
• They get fused together over length W; tapered section of length L;
total draw length = L+W
• Significant decrease in V-number in the coupling region; energy in
the core leak out and gradually couples into the second fibre
Definitions
Splitting (Coupling) Ratio = P2 ( P1 + P2 )

Excess Loss =10 Log[ P0 ( P1 + P2 )]

Insertion Loss =10 Log[ Pin Pout ]

Crosstalk = 10 Log( P3 P0 )
Try Ex. 10.2
 P1 = P0 cos2 (z )

P2 = P0 sin2 (z )

Coupler
characteristics

: Coupling Coefficient
Coupler Characteristics
• power ratio between both output can be changed by
adjusting the draw length of a simple fused fiber coupler

• It can be made a WDM de-multiplexer:

• Example, 1300 nm will appear output 2 (p2) and 1550 nm will appear at output 1 (P1)
• However, suitable only for few wavelengths that are far apart, not good for DWDM
 Wavelength Selective Devices
These perform their operation on the incoming
optical signal as a function of the wavelength
Examples:
• Wavelength add/drop multiplexers
• Wavelength selective optical
combiners/splitters
• Wavelength selective switches and routers
Fused-Fiber Star Coupler

Splitting Loss = -10 Log(1/N) dB = 10 Log (N) dB

Excess Loss = 10 Log (Total Pin/Total Pout)
Fused couplers have high excess loss
 8x8 bi-directional star coupler by cascading
3 stages of 3-dB Couplers
 1,  2  1,  2  5,  6

 1,  2  3,  4  7,  8

N (12 = 4 X 3)
Number of 3-dB Couplers N c = log 2 N Try Ex. 10.5
2
Fiber Bragg Grating
 Fiber Bragg Grating
• This is invented at Communication Research
Center, Ottawa, Canada
• The FBG has changed the way optical filtering is
done
• The FBG has so many applications
• The FBG changes a single mode fiber (all pass
filter) into a wavelength selective filter
Fiber Brag Grating (FBG)
• Basic FBG is an in-fiber passive optical band
reject filter
• FBG is created by imprinting a periodic
perturbation in the fiber core
• The spacing between two adjacent slits is called
the pitch
• Grating play an important role in:
• Wavelength filtering
• Dispersion compensation
• Optical sensing
• EDFA Gain flattening
• Single mode lasers and many more areas
 Bragg Grating formation

2 sin( / 2) = uv
 FBG Theory
Exposure to the high intensity UV radiation changes
the fiber core n(z) permanently as a periodic
function of z

n( z ) = ncore + n[1 + cos(2z /  )]

z: Distance measured along fiber core axis

: Pitch of the grating
ncore: Core refractive index
δn: Peak refractive index
Reflection at FBG
Simple De-multiplexing Function

Reflected Wavelength B = 2neff

Peak Reflectivity Rmax = tanh2(kL)
Wavelength Selective DEMUX
Dispersion Compensation

Longer wavelengths
take more time

Reverse the operation of

dispersive fiber
Shorter wavelengths
take more time
ADD/DROP MUX

FBG Reflects in both directions; it is bidirectional

Extended Add/Drop Mux
FBG for DFB Laser

• Only one wavelength gets positive feedback →

single mode Distributed Feed Back laser
Advanced Grating Profiles
 FBG Properties
Advantages
• Easy to manufacture, low cost, ease of coupling
• Minimal insertion losses – approx. 0.1 db or less
• Passive devices

Disadvantages
• Sensitive to temperature and strain.
• Any change in temperature or strain in a FBG causes the
grating period and/or the effective refractive index to change,
which causes the Bragg wavelength to change.
neff neff
neff = T + 
T 
Unique Application of FBG
Resonance Cavity with FBG
Transmission Characteristics
Experimental Set-Up
• What is the wavelength
separation when RF
separation 50 MHz?
Interferometers
 Interferometer
An interferometric device uses 2 interfering paths of
different lengths to resolve wavelengths
Typical configuration: two 3-dB directional couplers
connected with 2 paths having different lengths

Applications:
— wideband filters (coarse WDM) that separate
signals at1300 nm from those at 1550 nm
— narrowband filters: filter bandwidth depends on the
number of cascades (i.e. the number of 3-dB
couplers connected)
 Basic Mach-Zehnder Interferometer

Phase shift of the propagating wave increases with L,

Constructive or destructive interference depending on L
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Phase shift at the output due to the propagation
path length difference:
2 neff
 = L

If the power from both inputs (at different
wavelengths) to be added at output port 2, then,
1 1
 = 2 neff  −  L
 1 2 
Try Ex. 10-6
Four-Channel Wavelength Multiplexer

• By appropriately selecting ΔL, wavelength

multiplexing/de-multiplexing can be achieved
MZI- Demux Example
Arrayed Wave Guide Filters

Each waveguide has

slightly different length
Phase Array Based WDM Devices
• The arrayed waveguide is a generalization of 2x2
MZI multiplexer
• The lengths of adjacent waveguides differ by a
constant L
• Different wavelengths get multiplexed (multi-
inputs one output) or de-multiplexed (one input
multi output)
• For wavelength routing applications multi-input
multi-output routers are available
 Diffraction Gratings
source impinges on a diffraction grating ,each wavelength
is diffracted at a different angle
Using a lens, these wavelengths can be focused onto
individual fibers.
Less channel isolation between closely spaced wavelengths.
Generating Multiple Wavelength for
WDM Networks
• Discrete DFB lasers
• Straight forward stable sources, but
expensive
• Wavelength tunable DFB lasers
• Multi-wavelength laser array
• Integrated on the same substrate
• Multiple quantum wells for better optical
and carrier confinement
• Spectral slicing – LED source and comb filters
Discrete Single-Wavelength Lasers
• Number of lasers into simple power coupler; each
emit one fixed wavelength
• Expensive (multiple lasers)
• Sources must be carefully controlled to avoid
wavelength drift
Frequency Tuneable Laser
• Only one (DFB or DBR) laser that has grating filter in the lasing
cavity
• Wavelength is tuned by either changing the temperature of the
grating (0.1 nm/OC)
• Or by altering the injection current into the passive section (0.006
nm/mA)
• The tuning range decreases with the optical output power
Tunable Laser Characteristics

Typically, tuning range 10-15 nm,

Channel spacing = 10 X Channel width
Tunable Filters
• Tunable filters are made by at least one branch of an
interferometric filter has its
• Propagation length or
• Refractive index altered by a control mechanism
• When these parameters change, phase of the propagating light
wave changes (as a function of wavelength)
• Hence, intensity of the added signal changes (as a function of
wavelength)
• As a result, wavelength selectivity is achieved
Tunable Optical Filters
Tuneable Filter Considerations
• Tuning Range (Δν): 25 THz (or 200nm) for the
whole 1330 nm to 1500 nm. With EDFA normally
Δλ = 35 nm centered at 1550 nm
• Channel Spacing (δν): the min. separation
between channels selected to minimize crosstalk
(30 dB or better)
• Maximum Number of Channels (N = Δν/ δν):
• Tuning speed: Depends on how fast switching
needs to be done (usually milliseconds)
Issues in WDM Networks
• Nonlinear inelastic scattering processes due to
interactions between light and molecular or
acoustic vibrations in the fibre
• Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
• Nonlinear variations in the refractive index due to
varying light intensity
• Self Phase Modulation (SPM)
• Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)
• Four Wave Mixing (FWM)