RESEARCH- Comes from two words, re and search, which implies that research topics are not new

or that
such topics have not been discussed before.

- “Scientific process of critical selection of data, investigation and analysis of such to gain new
knowledge.”
- “Answers new questions and add new knowledge to existing knowledge using the present and the
past.”
- “ A systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about
presumed relations of a given phenomenon.”

Research must give new knowledge, for what is known in the past may not be applicable to what is
contemporary.

Importance of Research
1. Creates problem-solving mind set
2. Increases professionalism

Characteristics of Research
a. EMPIRICAL. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
b. LOGICAL. Research is based on valid procedures and principles, done in an orderly manner.
c. CYCLICAL. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
d. REPLICABILITY. Research design and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at
valid and conclusive results. The more replicated of researchers there are, the more valid and
conclusive the results would be.

Elements of Research
1. Why- The aim or objective of the research process.
2. What- The subject matter or topic to be investigated.
3. Where- the place or locale where the research is to be conducted.
4. Who- The respondent or population from whom the data are to be collected.
5. When- The period/time of the conduct of the study.

Kinds of Research
a. BASIC or PURE Research- It aims to discover the basic truths or principles.
- It is usually carried out in the laboratory.
- Intended to add to a body of knowledge.
Ex. “Newton’s Law”
“Determining the Relationship between Home Environment and Academic Performance.”
b. APPLIED Research- Application of a scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem.
- It aims to improve a conduct or a process by testing theoretical concepts in an actual
problem situation.
Ex.: “The problem on Population Explosion.”
“Use of Different Contraceptives.”
c. ACTION Research- A decision-oriented research which involves the application of the
scientific method in response to an immediate need for improvement of the existing
practices.
- It puts emphasis on a problem in a local setting.
Ex.: “Trying to determine the causes of dropouts every semester in order to find possible
solutions to minimize the problem.”

Nature of Research

a. Research as a Scientific Process

Problem Identification – Hypothesis Formulation – Experimentation – Conclusion

b. Research as a bridge of the Knowledge Gap

Theoritical Pole of Knowledge – “Research” – Empirical Pole of Knowledge
(What we think is) (What is)
 _______________________________________
THEORY
_______________________________________
Research Process
Theoretical Pole Empirical Pole
CRITICAL REFLECTION ACTION OUTPUT
● WHAT’S UP? DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM SITUATION BACKGROUND OF THE STORY

● WHAT DO YOU THINK? THEORIZE BASED ON ASSUMPTIONS THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

● HOW SURE ARE YOU? VERIFY THEORY PROBLEM HYPOTHESIS

● SO, WHAT? CORROBORATE FINDINGS ANALYSIS DESIGN

● WHAT NOW? SYNTHESIZE AND GENERALIZE REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURE

● WHAT THEN? RECOMMEND ACTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

INTERVENTIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS

Sources of Research
1. EXPERIENCES
Ex.: “Using the Washing Machine Against Manual Laundering.”
2. PROBLEMS in Work Environment
Ex.: “Sources of Stress.”
3. TECHNOLOGICAL and SCIENTIFIC ADVANCEMENT
Ex: “Advantages of Using Unleaded Gas for Automobiles.”
4. CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS
Ex.: “Intelligence Theories as Related to Academic Performance.”
5. OFFSHOOTS OF OTHER RESEARCHES
6. SUGGESTIONS from FRIENDS/AUTHORITIES

Methods of Research
a. HISTORICAL Method- It deals with past trends, attitudes, events or facts and interprets
them in the light of the present.
Ex.: “The history of Philippine Constabulary”
“It was said that Dr. Jose Rizal recanted his religion before he was executed.” The problem is
to determine if it is true.
Types of Historical Research
1. Deliberate- There is a conscious effort to preserve information like in diaries and epitaphs,
recorded with the aim of transmitting information.
2. Incidental- It supplies information that was not the original intention. This may consists of
physical objects or written materials of historical value which are called relics or remains
and are produced without deliberate aiming to impart information.

b. DESCRIPTIVE Method- It focuses on fact-finding and a lot of interpretation. It describes the

nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of
particular phenomena.
Types of Descriptive Research
1. Survey Research – Used when one intends to gather a relatively limited data from a
relatively large number subjects.
Kinds of Survey Research:
1.a. Descriptive Survey- Uses questionnaires or other instruments to generate data
prepared by the researcher.
1.b. Descriptive Normative Survey- Uses standardized sources of data like metal
ability tests, performance questionnaires, and leadership questionnaires which have
norms.
Ex.: “ Teaching Styles and Sources of Stress of Teachers in Mangaldan National High
School.”
2. Case Study Method- Used when one makes a detailed study about one person or unit
over a considerable period of time. It provides insights into human behavior which may
lead to the discovery of new findings.
Ex.: “A Case Study of a Fraternal Twin”
3. Developmental Study- Used when one intends to get reliable information about a group
of people over a long period of time.
 Techniques in Developmental Study:
3.a. Longitudinal Method- One studies the same sample of participants over an
extended period of time.
Ex.: If you want to investigate the development of subjects from babyhood to
adolescence.
3.b.Cross-Sectional Method- Studying participants of various age level and other
characteristics at the same point in time.
Ex.: In the development of children from babyhood to adolescence, children from all
levels maybe studied at the same time.
4. Assessment Study- Refers to the efficiency of effectiveness of practices, policies,
instruments, or other variables that may be considered. It is oftentimes subjective in
nature since the survey deals with impressions or perceptions of respondents.
Ex. The implementation of K-12 education program.
The effectiveness of UBD in teaching.
5. Comparative Study- This is a causal-comparative with the use of intervening variables.
It merely compares the characteristics of groups according to some selected variables
since the main purpose is to determine the difference without determining the cause.
Ex.: The differences of Mathematics achievement of first year high school students in
the four public high schools of Rosales, Pangasinan.
6. Correlational Study- Designed to determine which different variables are related to
each other in the population of interest.
Ex.: Determining the relationship between age and leadership dimension of high school
principals in the Municipality of Mangaldan.
7. Follow-Up Study- Used when one wants to follow-up the development of a certain
condition.
Ex.: A follow up of the graduates from 1990 to 2010 at the LNU Graduate School.

c. EXPERIMENTAL Method- A method where variables are controlled and possible factors will
determine the measurement of the change.
Characteristics: a. Manipulation
b. Control
c. Randomization

Characteristics of a Good Research

1. It should be of interest to you
2. It should have practical value
3. It is a current issue.
4. It should be within your experience, orientation and capability.
5. It can be finished within an allotted time.
6. It should not carry moral/legal impediments.
7. Its data are available.
8. It shall incur expenses affordable to the researcher.

Factors Influencing the Selection of a Problem

1. Availability of data
2. Time constraint
3. Funds, facilities and equipments
4. Capability, attitudes and interest of the researcher
5. Interest of the sponsors or benefactors
6. Importance and recency of issues involved
7. Cooperation of others

Writing the Title of the Investigation

It is always wise to be definitive about the title because it serves some purposes. Here
they are:
1. It summarizes the content of the entire study.
2. It is a frame of reference for the whole study.
3. It enables you to claim the study as your own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer your work as they survey some theories themselves.
The title should:
1. be clear and specific.
2. Include the variables in the study.
3. Have words that can be defined easily.
4. Not exceed twenty (20) substantive words.
 Ex.: “Work Performance Ratings of Teachers and Their Board Examination Ratings”
Improved: “Work Performance Ratings of Teachers at Mangaldan NHS and Their Board
Examination
Ratings”

Parts of a Research Report

Old Model:
Chapter 1 Introduction
Background of the Study
Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework and Research Paradigm
Statement of Problem
Research Hypothesis/ Hypothesis
Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study
Definition of Terms
Chapter 2 Review of Related Literatures and Studies
Related Literature (Locale/Foreign)
Related Studies (Local/Foreign)
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
Research Design
Population and Locale of the Study
Research Instrument
Data gathering procedures
Treatment of Data
Chapter 4 Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
Presentation
Analysis
Interpretation
Chapter 5 Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations

New Model (Approved by the CHED):

Chapter 1 Introduction - THE PROBLEM
Background of the Study - Rationale
Theoretical
Conceptual Framework and Research Paradigm
Statement of Problem
Research Hypothesis/Hypotheses
Scope and Limitations
Significance of the Study
Definition Terms
Chapter 2 Methods and Procedures
Research Design
Population and Locale of the Study
Research instrument (Instrumentation and Data Collection)
Data gathering Procedures
Treatment of Data
Chapter 3 Results and Discussions
Results
Discussions
Chapter 4 Conclusions, and Recommendations
Conclusions
Recommendations

The following are found before Chapter 1:

- Title; Approval Sheet; Acknowledgement; Dedication; Abstract; Table of Contents
- The following are included after Chapter 5:
Bibliography; Appendices; Curriculum Vitae
 Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM

Rationale

The subtopics found in Chapter 1 (Introduction) are the following:

A. Background of the Study

● Describes the problem situation in general terms and demonstrates logically continuity
between relevant works and the present study.
● Cites pertinent data from existing documents or findings, methodological issues,
conclusions, and recommendations from previous studies that shape and portray the
problem situation
● Gives a firm sense of the need and practical importance of the study.

This is usually a paragraph side head which begins chapter 1. Statement in this chapter
should not only signify the importance of the topic but shall also cause an impact on the
reader.
A research report is an objective report, which shall only with cold facts not with a literary
piece although in this portion, one may be allowed to give a personal statement or an
opinion, it should be backed with statements from persons of authority or be substantiated by
documents or records.

B. Theoretical Framework

3 or 4 paragraph rule 1 state Theory, - Define (2) – Justify

Conceptual Framework

● Discusses the merits of the theories/concepts that legitimize the:

a. validity of research questions
b. meanings of the variables in the study, the measurement employed, and the design
adopted
c. analytic and interpretive approaches used
● Depicts and briefly explains the conceptual blueprint that serves as the roadmap of the
study either in the form of a:
a. Causal Paradigm
b. IPO (Input-Process-Output) Paradigm
c. Operational Paradigm (Process Flowchart)
 ENHANCING EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS THROUGH PORTFOLIO BASED APPROACH

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

PORTFOLIO BASED APPROACH EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

A theoretical framework is based on actual theory while a conceptual framework is a

creation of the author. Both are organized, logical and coherent frameworks upon which
the problems of the study are based. Moreover, they serve as inductive approach towards
the statement of the problem. Reading through the theoretical or conceptual framework,
one can immediately perceive what the study is about. By and large, this portion is the
basis of the research problem. I t explains the phenomenon upon which the thesis
investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of knowledge.

Paradigm- a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a more

vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.

Example: (MORAL COMPETENCY OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS)

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

A. Profile of the public elementary
Descriptive-Survey
and secondary school administrators
B. Level of moral competency of the
Survey
public elementary and secondary
school administrators
in terms of: Data Processing
1. Cognitive Domain;
2. Affective Domain; and Data Management
Psychomotor Domain Proposed Intervention
Data Analysis Program to Enhance the
Moral Competency of Public
Public Elementary and Secondary Data Interpretation Elementary and Secondary
School School Administrators
Administrators of Rosales,
Pangasinan

(MORAL COMPETENCY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLADMINISTRATORS)

This study looks into the moral competency of public school administrators of the
Municipality of Rosales, Pangasinan for the calendar year 2008.
Specifically, it seeks answer to the following questions:
1. What is the profile of the public elementary and secondary school administrators in
terms of the following demographic factors?
a. Educational Attainment
 b. Length of Service
c. Position
d. Type of School
2. What is the level of moral competency of public elementary and secondary school
administrators in terms of the following domains?
a. Cognitive
b. Affective
c. Psychomotor
3. Is there a significant difference in the level of moral competency of public elementary and
secondary school administrators according to the following demographic factors?
a. Educational Attainment
b. Length of Service
c. Position
d. Type of School
5. Is there a significant relationship between the level of moral competency and the profile of
the public elementary and secondary school administrators?

6. What intervention program maybe proposed to enhance the moral competency of public
elementary and secondary school administrators?

Null Hypotheses:

1. There is no significant difference in the level of moral competency of public elementary and
secondary school administrators according to the following demographic factors.
a. Educational Attainment
b. Length of Service
c. Position
d. Type of School
2. There is no significant relationship between the level of moral competency and the profile of
the public elementary and secondary school administrators.

C. Statement of the Problem

● Articulates the general problem and its logical components in the form of specific research
questions.

This is one of the most important parts of a research report. This is the focus of the
study and all questions stated should be categorically answered.

WAYS in writing the Statement of the Problem:

1. Question Form
Example: What are the problems encountered by the pastors of Church of God in Region I
along:
a. family
b. community, and
c. Church?
2. Topical Form
Example: The problems encountered by the pastors of Church of God in Region I along:
a. family
b. community, and
c. Church.
PARTS of a Problem:
1. General Problem
2. Specific Problems
Example: (MORAL COMPETENCY OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS)
This study looked into the moral competency of public school administrators of the
Municipality of Rosales, Pangasinan for the calendar year 2008.
Specifically, it sought answer to the following questions:
1. What is the profile of the public elementary and secondary school administrators in
terms of the following demographic factors?
e. Educational Attainment
f. Length of Service
g. Position
h. Type of School
2. What is the level of moral competency of public elementary and secondary school
administrators in terms of the following domains?
 d. Cognitive
e. Affective
f. Psychomotor
3. Is there a significant difference in the level of moral competency of public elementary and
secondary school administrators according to the following demographic factors?
e. Educational Attainment
f. Length of Service
g. Position
h. Type of School
4. Is there a significant relationship between the level of moral competency and the profile of the
public elementary and secondary school administrators?
5. What intervention program maybe proposed to enhance the moral competency of public
elementary and secondary school administrators?

D. Research Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more

variables or effects of variables on other variables. Also, it is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviors, phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur. It states one’s expectations
concerning the relationship between the variables in the research problem.

FORMS of hypothesis:
1. Null Hypothesis- This means that it is predicted that there will be the difference, relationship,
effect or interaction. Null means no existence or that it is empty.
Example: There is NO significant difference between the profiles and level of moral competency
of the school administrators.
2. Alternative Hypothesis- This indicates that it is predicted that there will be difference,
relationship, effect or interaction between the variables.
Example: There is NO significant difference between the profiles and level of moral competency
of the school administrators.
 CHAPTER II
METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The topics under Chapter II are:

a. Research Design
● Includes the research method/s used in the study.

b. Population and Locale of the Study

● Includes answers to such questions as who participated in the study? How many
participants were there? How were they selected? If any participant did not complete the
data gathering tool or procedure, give the number of these and the reasons they did not
continue
● Describes the major demographic characteristics of the population or sample in terms of
the variables of the study

*Finite Population – Those that can be counted.

Example: All the students of Mangaldan National High School
*Infinite Population – Those which cannot be counted.
Example: All students

c. Research Instrument

● Describes briefly the apparatus or instrument used in data gathering

● In cases where the instrument is a questionnaire, describes also the instrumentation
process in terms of:
o How the instrument was generated
o How the instrument was modified to adapt to the peculiar demographic
characteristics of respondents in the case of an adopted instrument
o What measures were used
o Parts of the instrument
o How the instrument was validated or tested for reliability

Questionnaires – If an impersonal interaction is sufficient, the researcher puts his questions on

paper and asks the respondents to answer them. This is the questionnaire technique which is
frequently used in surveys.
The questionnaire is also the most commonly used tool to generate data.
Sometimes it is called survey form. It refers to paper and pencil data gathering method by letting
the respondent complete the questionnaire before the researcher or his representative, or it can
be mailed.

Criteria of a Good Questionnaire:

a. The language must be clear.
b. The content of the question must be specific.
Example: 1. What has been your most interesting experience in school?
Improved: 2. What was your most interesting experience in your fourth year of
schooling in this high school?
c. The question should show singleness or purpose.
Example: 1. Do your favor adding a year to the high school and stating the
school year in September?
Improved: 2. Do your favor adding a year to the high school?
d. The question must be free from assumptions.
Example: 1. Do you take medicine when you are sick with colds?
Improved: 2. What medicine do you take when you are sick with colds?
e. The question should be free from suggestions.
Example: 1. Many countries have become progressive due to industrialization.
Do you agree that the Philippines can also be progressive if it becomes
industrialized?
Improved: 2. What do you think should be done for the Philippines to become
progressive?
f. The question should have linguistic completeness and grammatical consistency.

Kinds of Questionnaire:
a. Open-Ended – The options of the items are not given or are not arranged. This leaves the
respondent to answer the questions in his own way.
Example: 1. Give your opinion on the issue of eVAT.
____________________________________
 In general, respondents do not like to answer open-ended questionnaires for aside from
giving multiple responses, they feel that they are taking an examination. Aside from this, an
open-ended questionnaire gives multiple responses which make statistical analysis difficult.

b. Closed-Ended – The options are given and the respondent simply checks or encircles his
answer. It does not require much effort on the part of the respondent to answer the questions.
This type of questionnaire has in most cases, the same options throughout the whole
questionnaires as in a Likert scale. Some questions are constructed with two, three, four, or five
options. It is better to use a five- point Likert Scale.

Example:
Number Limits Descriptions
Descriptive Descriptive
Equivalent Interpretation
4 3.26-4.00 Always Manifested Highly Morally Competent
3 2.51-3.25 Often Manifested Moderately Morally
Comp.
2 1.76-2.50 Sometimes Manifested Least Morally Competent
1 1.00-1.75 Never Manifested Not Morally Competent

VALIDITY and RELIABILITY of the Research Instrument (Questionaire)

1. VALIDITY – Considered as the most important characteristic of a good tool for research. It is
defined as the extent to which the procedure actually accomplishes or what it seeks to
measure, especially for tests. If the instrument or research tool has the objective of
generating attitudes from respondents, then it should generate attitudes, not otherwise. If the
instrument seeks to determine achievement, then it should accomplish such purpose.

Kinds of Validity:

a. FACE Validity – This consists of examining the instrument to find out if it is a good one. Two or
three experts on the subject are asked to look at the test items. Face validity is considered as
the weakest form of validity.

b. CONTENT Validity – This is stronger than the face validity since experts apply statistical
methods in determining the validity of the tool. In this case, this is known as item analysis.

2. RELIABILITY – It refers to the extent a research tool elicits the same or similar results
whenever it is given. Moreover, it refers to the degree of consistency it can give the same
results or that characteristic which describes the tool as possessing internal consistency in terms
of results or data on repeated use. It is the accuracy of data, their stability, repeatability or
precision.

Estimates of Reliability:

a. TEST-RETEST Reliability – a test has reliability when it is given to the same samples on two
different occasions and these two tests show a high degree of correlation. It is sometimes called
a coefficient of stability in the sense that the trait being measured is fairly stable through time. It
also implies that the second score is not greatly affected by the double exposure. The coefficient
of correlation r between the results of the first and second administration of the questionnaire
can be computed with the use of Spearman rho (rs) indicated below:
❑
rs = 1 - 6 ∑ ❑2
D

N3-N
❑
Where: ∑ ❑2 – sum of the squared differences between ranks
D
N –number of cases
rs – Spearman rank difference correlation coefficient

Steps:
1. Rank the scores of the subjects from the highest to the lowest in the first set of administration
(X) and mark these ranks as Rx. The highest score receives the rank 1; the second highest, 2;
and so on.
2. Rank the second set of scores (Y) in the same manner as in step 1 and mark as Ry.
3. Determine the difference in ranks for every pair of ranks.
4. Square each difference to get D2.
❑
5. Sum the square difference to find ∑ ❑2
D
6. Compute using the Spearman rho (rs) by applying the formula.
Example:
Fourteen respondents are used as pilot sample to test the reliability of an achievement test in
Statistics.

Respondents X Y Rx Ry D D2
1 90 70 2 7.5 -5.5 30.25
2 43 31 13 12.5 .5 .25
3 84 79 6.5 3 3.5 12.25
4 86 70 4.5 7.5 -3.5 9
5 55 43 11 10.5 .5 .25
6 77 70 8.5 7.5 1 1
7 84 75 6.5 4.5 2 4
8 91 88 1 1 0 0
9 40 31 14 12.5 1.5 2.25
10 75 70 10 7.5 2.5 6.25
11 86 80 4.5 2 2.5 6.25
12 89 75 3 4.5 -1.5 2.25
13 48 30 12 14 -2 4
14 77 43 8.5 10.5 -2 4
❑
∑ ❑2 = 82
D

❑
rs = 1 - 6 ∑ ❑2
D
N3-N
= 1-6(82)
143-14
= 1- 492
2730
= 1- .18

rs = .82 (HIGH RELATIONSHIP)

INTERPRETATION:
0.00 to +/-0.20 denotes negligible correlation
+/-0.21 to +/-0.40 denotes low or slight correlation
+/-0.41 to +/-0.70 denotes marked or moderate relationship
+/-0.71 to +/-0.90 denotes high relationship
+/-0.91 to +/-0.99 denotes very high relationship
+/-1.00 denotes perfect correlation

b. SPILT- HALF Method – The test in this method may be administered once, but the test items
are divided into two halves. The common procedure is to divide the test into odd and even items.
The two halves of the test must be similar but not identical in content, number of items,
difficulty, means and standard deviations. Each respondent obtains two scores, one on the odd
and the other on the even items in the same test. The scores obtained in the two halves are
correlated. The result is a reliability coefficient for a half test. Spearman-Brown formula may be
estimated and used

rwt = 2 (rht) Where: rwt – reliability of the whole test

1+ rht rht - reliability of a half test

Example:
A test is administered to 10 students as pilot sample to test the reliability coefficient of the odd
and the even items
Respondents X Y Rx Ry D D2
1 23 30 9 7.5 1.5 2.25
2 25 24 7.5 9.5 2 4
3 27 30 6 7.5 1.5 2.25
4 35 40 5 4 1 1
5 48 55 3 1.5 1.5 2.25
 6 21 24 10 9.5 .5 .25
7 25 35 7.5 6 1.5 2.25
8 50 51 2 3 1 1
9 38 38 4 5 1 1
10 55 55 1 1.5 .5 .25
❑
∑ ❑2 = 16.5
D

❑
rs = 1 - 6 ∑ ❑2 Rwt = 2 (rht)
D
N3-N 1+ rht

= 1- (16.5) = 2 (.90)
103-10 1+.90
= 1- 99 = 1.8
1000-10 1.9
= 1- 99 = .95 (VERY HIGH RELATIONSHIP)
990
= .90

d. Data Gathering Procedures

● Discusses what the researcher did to collect data and summarizes each step in the
execution of the data collection phase, including the instructions given to the participants,
the randomization, counterbalancing, and other control features in the design.
o Brief staements about essential parameters (i.e scope and limitations or
delimitations) can be included in the respective subsecutions where they are
deemed necessary to be noted.

e. Treatment of Data

● Identifies and briefly describes the descriptive and analytic tools used to treat the data
gathered.

Example:
To treat the data gathered, the following were used:
1. To determine the profile of the public elementary and secondary school administrators
in terms of the demographic factors, Frequency counts and Percentage were used.
2. To determine the level of moral competency of the public elementary and secondary
school administrators in terms of the three domains of moral competency, Average
Weighted Mean was used.
The level of moral competency of the public school administrators was interpreted as
follows:
Number Limits Descriptions
Descriptive Descriptive
Equivalent Interpretation
4 3.26 – 4.00 Always Manifested Highly Morally Competent
3 2.51 – 3.25 Often Manifested Moderately Morally Competent
2 1.76 – 2.50 Sometimes Manifested Least Morally Competent
1 1.00 – 1.75 Never Manifested Not Morally Competent

3. To treat the significant difference in the level of moral competency of public elementary
and secondary school administrators according to the following demographic factors:
a. Educational Attainment, t-test was used;
b. Length of service, t-test was used;
c. Position, t-test was used;
d. Type of School, t-test was used.
4. To test the significant relationship between the level of moral competency and the
profile of the public elementary and secondary school administrators, Pearson r was used.
 CHAPTER III
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This is where the review of related literature becomes interwoven into the texture of the
research report.

Presentation is the narrative description of summarized data.

Analysis on the other hand, involves the decomposition and synthesis of data with the end view
of accounting for trends, patterns, or differentials observed (descriptive analysis) or to account
for the behavior of variables on the basis of computed statistical indices (statistical analysis).

Interpretation involves giving meaning to analyzed data by cross referencing your analysis
with corroborative evidences.

Facts + Figures = Data

Data + Context = Information
Information + Meaning = Knowledge
Kinds of data:
a. Documentary data – those information which the researcher does not have at hand in the
generation of data. These can be obtained from offices, hospitals, government agencies, etc.
b. Direct data – those obtained directly by the researcher himself.

Ways to Present, Analyze, and/or interpret data:

a. TEXTUAL form – This is the simplest method of presenting data when there are few
numbers to be presented.
The results are explained in paragraph form.
Example: The performance of instructors and professors at the State Colleges and Universities in
Region I (Ilocos Region) are as follows: 15 or 18.33 percent have outstanding performance; 80 or
44.44 percent have very satisfactory performance 55 or 30.56 percent, satisfactory
performance; and 30 or 16.67 percent, fairly satisfactory.
b. TABULAR form – This is done by presenting the data in tables. Presenting the data by
means of statistical tables is a systematic way of arranging them in rows and columns. Each
category in the table is placed in a row or column and the data are placed in their respective
cells. In this manner, the reader can compare immediately the different data in different
categories.

Example:
Instructors and Professors Frequency Percentage
Performance
(%)
Outstanding 15 8.33

Very Satisfactory 80 44.44

Satisfactory 55 30.56

Fairly Satisfactory 30 16.67

TOTAL 180 100

c. GRAPHICAL form – A graph is a geometric image or a mathematical picture of a set of data.
Presenting the data in this form gives a clearer picture to the readers.
Kinds of Graphs:
1. Line graph – is made by plotting the data with a dot and connecting the plotted points by
means of straight lines. In other words, the X- axis and Y- axis data intersect with each other
bearing reasonable with each other by plotting with a dot and straight lines are drawn to connect
neighboring dots or points.

Example:

A Questionnaire to Establish the Content Validity of the Research Instrument

Instruction: Please fill up the blanks and put a check mark (/) on the appropriate spaces.

Name: ________________________________________
Designation: ________________________________________
Station: ________________________________________

Criteria S A U D SD
A
4 3 2 1
5

1. The items adequately represents the objectives of the study.

2. The items are concise.

3. The items are clearly stated.

4. The items are comprehensible.

5. The items are specific.

6. The items fit the comprehension level of the respondents.

7. The items are measurable.

Legend:
SA – Strongly Agree
A – Agree
U – Undecided
D – Disagree
SD – Strongly Disagree
__________________________________
Signature

ITEM ANALYSIS

Steps in Item Analysis (Upper – Lower Index Method):

1. Arrange the scored tests or answer sheets in order from high to low.
2. Separate two subgroups of test papers, an upper group, consisting of approximately 27
percent of the total group which received the highest scores on the test, and a lower group
consisting of an equal number of papers from those which received the lowest scores.
3. Count the number of times each possible response to each item was chosen on the
papers of the upper group. Do the same separately for the papers of the lower group.
4. Record these response counts opposite the responses they refer to on a copy of the
test. In a tally sheet, tally the number of cases from each group which gets the item right for
each of all the items.
5. Convert the tallies to frequencies and then to proportions.
6. Compute the difficulty index of each item using this formula:

D1 = Pu + P1 Where: Df – difficulty index

2 Pu - proportion of the upper 27%
group who got the item right

P1 – proportion of the lower 27%

group who got the item right
7. Compute the discrimination index of each item using this formula:
 Ds = Pu + P1 Where: Ds – discrimination index

Index of discrimination Evaluation

.40 and up Very good item
.30 to .39 Reasonably good item but subject to improvement
.20 to .29 Marginal item, usually needing improvement
.19 and below poor item, to be rejected improved or revised
In research, items with difficulty indices within .20 and .80 and discrimination within .30 to
.80 are retained.

c. CONSTRUCT Validity – refers to the degree to which an instrument measures the theoretical
construct or trait that it was designed to measure. It can likewise be measured by noting the
group differences, changes, correlations, processes, multi-trait, multi-method ways and through
factorial validity.

2. Bar graph – It represents the data by areas in the form of vertical rectangles or bars. The bars
are drawn with their base equal to each other and the height corresponds to the data in the X-
axis. Bar graph has clearer presentation of data than line graph even if there are two or more
variables.
3. Circle graph – Also called pie graph, this is a way of presenting data in circular form. The data
divide the circle into parts and are represented in percent or in actual figure.
4. Pictograph – It uses pictures or symbols to represent information.

CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS
It is where you make inferences based on data and findings. It is likewise here where
generalization can now be made.
The conclusions actually are inferences that you can make out of the data that were
generated for the questions and the hypothesis. Sometimes, if you have theoretical framework, it
is in this portion where you state whether the findings of the study fully support, partially support
or did not support your theoretical framework.
The conclusions have been judged by researchers as one of the most difficult to write.
After having finished your study and after having written the research report up to summary, still
you find drawing the conclusions far from being written.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations allow for freer thinking for the reason that as long as there is a logical
link between the data and the conclusions and the recommendations, you are free to write down
what you wish to recommend.
Suggestions for further researchers end in this chapter. These are areas to be researched
which are offshoots of the present investigation. Of all the sections of the research report, this
seems to be the most taken for granted yet, you can make this part interesting. The suggestions
for further research can tie up with the present data, previous investigations, current thinking
and the inadequacy of the present study.

Omnia Ad Del Gloriam!