Module 3 : Introduction to Communication Technologies : 802.15.4.

ZigBee, BLE, LORA,

GSM Basic protocols, Topologies, Data Rate,Range,Power Computation, Bandwidth and
QoS
5 Marks Questions
1) Explain Communication technology IEEE 802.15.4 in details.
2) Write Short note BLE
3) Write short note ZigBee
4) Compare Bluetooth and ZigBee
5) Expalin LORA Communication
6) Explain What is Gateways.
10 Marks Questions
1) 802.15.4 standard in details.
2) Discuss ZigBee Protocol stacks ,Features and Working of ZigBee.
3) Explain the difference between End Node, PAN Coordinator, and Router in ZigBee.
4) Explain Bluetooth BLE in detail.
5) Explain in detail LORA Protocols.
6) Explain GSM essential components.
7) Explain Communication criteria in details.
8) Explain how Gateways are used for Data Management,Local Application and device
Management in IOT

Introduction of IEEE 802.15.4 Technology

IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for devices that are
operated or work on batteries. This describes how low-rate wireless personal area networks
(LR-WPANs) function.

IEEE 802.15.4e:

802.15.4e for industrial applications and 802.15.4g for the smart utility networks (SUN)
The 802.15.4e improves the old standard by introducing mechanisms such as time slotted
access, multichannel communication and channel hopping.
 IEEE 802.15.4e introduces the following general functional enhancements:
1. Low Energy (LE): This mechanism is intended for applications that can trade latency
for energy efficiency. It allows a node to operate with a very low duty cycle.
2. Information Elements (IE) It is an extensible mechanism to exchange information at
the MAC sublayer.
3. Enhanced Beacons (EB): Enhanced Beacons are an extension of the 802.15.4 beacon
frames and provide a greater flexibility. They allow to create application-specific
frames.
4. Multipurpose Frame: This mechanism provides a flexible frame format that can address
a number of MAC operations. It is based on IEs.
5. MAC Performance Metric: It is a mechanism to provide appropriate feedback on the
channel quality to the networking and upper layers, so that appropriate decision can be
taken.
6. Fast Association (FastA) The 802.15.4 association procedure introduces a significant
delay in order to save energy. For time-critical application latency has priority over
energy efficiency.
 IEEE 802.15.4e defines five new MAC behaviour modes.

1. Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH): It targets application domains such as industrial
automation and process control, providing support for multi-hop and multichannel
communications, through a TDMA approach.
2. Deterministic and Synchronous Multi-channel Extension (DSME): It is aimed to support
both industrial and commercial applications.
3. Low Latency Deterministic Network (LLDN): Designed for single-hop and single
channel networks
4. Radio Frequency Identification Blink (BLINK): It is intended for application domains
such as item/people identification, location and tracking .
5. Asynchronous multi-channel adaptation (AMCA): It is targeted to application domains
where large deployments are required, such as smart utility networks, infrastructure
monitoring networks, and process control networks

Properties:

1. Standardization and alliances: It specifies low-data-rate PHY and MAC layer

requirements for wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
IEEE 802.15. Protocol Stacks include:
 ZigBee: ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with a low rate task
group 4. It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological
standard created for controlling and sensing the network. As we know that
ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is based on IEEE
802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
 6LoWPAN: The 6LoWPAN system is used for a variety of applications
including wireless sensor networks. This form of wireless sensor network sends
data as packets and uses IPv6 – providing the basis for the name – IPv6 over
Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks.
 ZigBee IP: Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology that was developed
for low-cost and low-power wireless machine-to-machine (M2M) and internet of
things (IoT) networks.
 ISA100.11a: It is a mesh network that provides secure wireless communication
to process control.
 Wireless HART: It is also a wireless sensor network technology, that makes use
of time-synchronized and self-organizing architecture.
  Thread: Thread is an IPv6-based networking protocol for low-power Internet of
Things devices in IEEE 802.15. 4-2006 wireless mesh network. Thread is
independent.

2. Physical Layer:
This standard enables a wide range of PHY options in ISM bands, ranging from 2.4 GHz to
sub-GHz frequencies. IEEE 802.15.4 enables data transmission speeds of 20 kilobits per
second, 40 kilobits per second, 100 kilobits per second, and 250 kilobits per second. The
fundamental structure assumes a 10-meter range and a data rate of 250 kilobits per second.
To further reduce power usage, even lower data rates are possible. IEEE 802.15.4 regulates
the RF transceiver and channel selection, and even some energy and signal management
features, at the physical layer. Based on the frequency range and data performance needed,
there are now six PHYs specified. Four of them employ frequency hopping techniques
known as Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). Both PHY data service and
management service share a single packet structure so that they can maintain a common
simple interface with MAC.

3. MAC layer:
The MAC layer provides links to the PHY channel by determining that devices in the same
region will share the assigned frequencies. The scheduling and routing of data packets are
also managed at this layer. The 802.15.4 MAC layer is responsible for a number of
functions like:
 Beaconing for devices that operate as controllers in a network.
 used to associate and dissociate PANs with the help of devices.
 The safety of the device.
 Consistent communication between two MAC devices that are in a peer-to-peer
relationship.
Several established frame types are used by the MAC layer to accomplish these functions.
In 802.15.4, there are four different types of MAC frames:
 frame of data
 Frame for a beacon
 Frame of acknowledgement
 Frame for MAC commands

4. Topology:
Networks based on IEEE 802.15.4 can be developed in a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh
topology. Mesh networks connect a large number of nodes. This enables nodes that would
otherwise be out of range to interact with each other to use intermediate nodes to relay data.

5. Security:
For data security, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard employs the Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES) with a 128-bit key length as the basic encryption technique. Activating such security
measures for 802.15.4 significantly alters the frame format and uses a few of the payloads.
The very first phase in activating AES encryption is to use the Security Enabled field in the
Frame Control part of the 802.15.4 header. For safety, this field is a single bit which is
assigned to 1. When this bit is set, by taking certain bytes from its Payload field, a field
known as the Auxiliary Security Header is formed following the Source Address field.
6. Competitive Technologies: The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers serve as a basis
for a variety of networking profiles that operate in different IoT access scenarios. DASH7
is a competing radio technology with distinct PHY and MAC layers.
The architecture of LR-WPAN Device:

IEEE 802.15.4

Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages:

 cheap cost
 long battery life,
 Quick installation
 simple
 extensible protocol stack

Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include:

 IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.
 doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
 unbounded latency
 interference susceptibility

Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 Applications:

 Wireless sensor networks in the industry
 Building and home automation
 Remote controllers and interacting toys
 Automotive networks
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): A
Complete Guide

The Internet of Things (IoT) has been a buzzword for decades, but today this
market is far from theoretical. There are over 10 billion active IoT devices
globally, and one of the key technologies enabling this market growth is
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

Introduced in 2012, this flexible protocol provides wireless connection for

many of IoT’s most critical applications. Its focus on operating with ultra-low
power allows it to be used across industries such as consumer electronics,
healthcare, and logistics.
Defination of Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology that operates in the unlicensed
2.4 GHz ISM to transmit data and build personal area networks (PANs).

Most of us probably have a handful of Bluetooth devices within grabbing distance right now:
cell phones, laptops, headphones, and speakers. In fact, in 2021, there were over 4.7 billion
Bluetooth devices shipped globally. Bluetooth is one of the most widely used technologies
in the world.

Most people on the street would know what Bluetooth is – at least at a high level. But behind
the scenes, it’s a relatively complex technology standard managed by a group known as
the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). Over the years, the Bluetooth SIG has released
different versions of the Bluetooth Specification. The most popular protocols in the spec
are Bluetooth Classic and Bluetooth Low Energy.

What is Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)?

Despite taking many cues from its predecessor, Bluetooth Classic, Bluetooth Low Energy is
regarded as a different technology that specifically targets markets where the demand is for
ultra-low power rather than high throughput.

Data communication with an LE radio happens in short bursts that do not need to be very
frequent. A typical LE use case would include periodically turning on the radio, transferring
or receiving a few bytes or kilobytes of data, and then turning off and going back to sleep.

This contrasts with Bluetooth Classic use cases where the radio is not turned off, like
maintaining a connection for a lengthy period of time to guarantee the least latency when a
call comes in, or use cases like the exchange of a large file.

Bluetooth Classic vs. Bluetooth Low Energy (LE)

While Bluetooth Classic and Bluetooth Low Energy protocols share many similarities, such
as both being protocols covered by the Bluetooth Specification and both operating within the
2.4 GHz ISM band, they are two distinct, incompatible protocols.
Bluetooth Classic is designed to handle a lot of data, but it also consumes power quickly.
Think about transmitting music from your phone to Bluetooth headphones. That is a
traditional use case for Bluetooth Classic.

Bluetooth Low Energy vs. Bluetooth Classic

BLE, on the other hand, is designed for applications that don’t require handling a lot of data
but do require really good battery life. Think about a sensor in a temperature-controlled
warehouse that you want to set and forget for months or even years. BLE would be a better fit
for that kind of application.

While there is more technical nuance to the two protocols, at a high level, the difference
between Bluetooth Classic and Bluetooth Low Energy comes down to differences in power
consumption and data throughput.

Advantages of BLE

By now, you understand that BLE was developed with a particular market in mind: that of
devices that require low power and small data transmission. To help meet this market’s
demand, Bluetooth Low Energy provides an array of advantages for both developers and end
consumers of BLE devices. Let’s look at a few of the most valuable advantages of BLE:
Advantages of Bluetooth Low Energy

Low power consumption

Even when compared to other low-power technologies. BLE achieves optimized and low
power consumption by keeping the radio off as much as possible and sending small amounts
of data at low transfer speeds.

Low cost of entry into development

BLE modules and chipsets are low cost when compared to other similar technologies. This is
a result of the increased adoption rate and competition in the marketplace.

Open access to documentation

With most other wireless protocols and technologies, you would have to become a member of
the official group or consortium for that standard to access the specification. Becoming a
member of those groups can cost a significant amount (up to thousands of dollars annually).
With BLE, the major version (4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, etc.) specification documents
are available to download from the Bluetooth.com website for free.

Prevalence in smartphones

This is probably the biggest advantage BLE has over its competitors, such as ZigBee, Z-
Wave, and Thread. The vast majority of people in the world own a smartphone, and almost
all of those smartphones have BLE hardware inside. This gives developers a much larger
potential user base for their applications.
Limitations of BLE

As a developer, understanding the limitations of a particular technology is just as important

as understanding its advantages. In this way, you can determine if a particular technology is a
good fit for your application or not. Let’s look at a few of the most important limitations of
BLE.

Limitations of Bluetooth Low Energy

Data Throughput

The data throughput of BLE is limited by the physical radio data rate, which is the rate at
which the radio transmits data. This rate depends on the Bluetooth version used.

For Bluetooth versions earlier than 5.0, the rate is fixed at 1 Mbps. For Bluetooth 5.0 and
later, however, the rate varies depending on the mode, and PHY (discussed later in the
Physical Layer section) used. The rate can be at 1 Mbps like earlier versions or 2 Mbps when
utilizing the high-speed feature.

When utilizing the long-range feature, the rate drops to either 500 or 125 Kbps. At the
application layer and for the end-user, the data rate is much lower than the radio data rate.

Range

BLE was designed for short-range applications; hence, its range of operation is limited. There
are a few factors that limit the range of BLE, including:
  It operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM spectrum, which is greatly affected by obstacles that
exist all around us, such as metal objects, walls, and water (especially human bodies).
 Performance and design of the antenna of the BLE device.
 The physical enclosure of the Bluetooth Low Energy device affects the antenna
performance, especially if it is an internal antenna.
 Device orientation – effectively relates to the positioning of the antenna (e.g., in
smartphones).

Gateway Requirement for Internet Connectivity

To transfer data from a BLE-only device to the Internet, another BLE device that has an IP
connection is needed to receive this data and then, in turn, relay it to another IP device (or to
the internet).

BLE Applications

When it was released in 2010, the BLE protocol primarily focused on the Internet of Things
(IoT) applications where small amounts of data are transferred at lower speeds. Over the last
decade, BLE has been used in various applications, from consumer devices to industrial
manufacturing. Let’s take a look at a few of the most common applications we see today:

 Home automation: Much of the home automation market is, in part, enabled by the
use of Bluetooth LE. BLE technology enables devices like smart lights, smart
thermostats, smart locks, and sensors that detect smoke or an ajar window.

 Fitness tracking: Many of us have smartwatches or Fitbits that track our heart rate,
steps, and more. These health and activity tracking devices communicate with apps on
our phones using BLE. These short bursts of data at close range are a perfect
candidate for BLE technology.
  Audio devices: We’re all familiar with Bluetooth headphones, but typically these
devices utilize Bluetooth Classic. One of the latest developments in Bluetooth Low
Energy is LE Audio. This new standard offers several advantages over traditional
Bluetooth, including improved audio quality, lower power consumption, and support
for hearing aids.

 Item finding tags: An increase in travel chaos has had some people
adding AirTags or Tiles to their luggage in case it gets lost. These BLE-enabled
precision tracking devices can be used for more than just luggage, though. You can
pop one on anything you think you might lose, like a bicycle or your car keys, and
track its location via a smartphone app.

 Inventory management: Warehouse managers are starting to use BLE solutions to

track temperature and humidity on sensitive shipments, detect drops for fragile items,
and even map out the most optimal storage locations for assets within a warehouse.
There is significant potential in this area to combine artificial intelligence and BLE to
provide a truly smart logistics chain.

BLE and the Internet of Things (IoT)

While IoT technology has been around for some time, in recent years, it’s been gaining some
serious traction. This traction means there’s also been an uptick in confusing explanations of
what IoT is exactly. So, let’s break it down.

The Internet of Things is the network of billions of devices – “things” – that are connected
wirelessly to exchange data over the internet. IoT technology helps to connect things like
thermostats, smart lights, people with embedded medical devices, animals with implanted
trackers, and cars with driver-assist sensors. Any person, animal, or man-made object can
become a “thing” in IoT. This means IoT is essentially connecting people, processes, and
systems.

To make all of these connections possible, IoT relies on wireless technologies. ZigBee,
Bluetooth Classic, and WiFi can all be used to connect devices wirelessly. However, BLE is
often viewed as the most optimal technology for IoT applications because of two main
reasons:
 1. Low power consumption. Many IoT devices are battery-powered and need to last in
the field for a very long time. For example, it would simply be impractical to
regularly replace the batteries in hundreds of sensors in a warehouse environment.
2. The type of data being exchanged. BLE is optimized to transmit a small amount of
data. This works great for IoT devices like sensors that just need to transfer state data.

BLE Beacons

Bluetooth beacons are small and wireless battery-powered transmitters that use BLE protocol
for transmission. The special thing about beacons is that they usually work in one direction.
They broadcast to nearby Bluetooth Low Energy devices, but they do not receive data. BLE
beacons do not require an internet connection to do this broadcasting. Typically this would
look like a single beacon broadcasting data to smart devices (cell phones, smart watches, etc.)
nearby.

Currently, smartphone support for Bluetooth beacons is lacking, so real-world

implementations are minimal. In the future, we will likely see beacons being used for things
like proximity marketing, indoor navigation, and asset tracking in the logistics industry.

BLE Development Basics

The Bluetooth Low Energy protocol is not straightforward to learn, even if you’re a seasoned
developer. To get you started on your BLE development journey, we’re going to break down
the Bluetooth LE protocol architecture at a high level and each of the BLE protocol layers.

Bluetooth LE Protocol Architecture

Bluetooth Low Energy is a protocol. And just like any other protocol, it acts as a rulebook
that devices must adhere to in order to communicate or exchange information.

It’s important to understand that a protocol’s general functionality is broken down into
smaller protocols, each of which is responsible for a very specialized role. These smaller
protocols are packaged into a layered architecture called a protocol stack or protocol suite.

The Bluetooth protocol stack is broadly broken down into three primary components or
subsystems: application, host, and controller. Inside each of these blocks are distinct layers.
BLE Protocol Layers

If you are a developer looking to develop BLE applications, you won’t have to worry much
about the layers below the Security Manager and Attribute Protocol layers. But it might still
be helpful to have some context about these layers. Let’s take a look.

The Physical Layer

The physical layer (PHY) refers to the physical radio used for communication and for
modulating/demodulating the data. It operates in the ISM band (2.4 GHz spectrum).

The Link Layer

The Link Layer is the layer that interfaces with the Physical Layer (Radio) and provides the
higher levels an abstraction and a way to interact with the radio (through an intermediary
level called the HCI layer which we’ll discuss shortly). It is responsible for managing the
state of the radio as well as the timing requirements for adhering to the Bluetooth Low
Energy specification.
The Host Controller Interface (HCI)

The (HCI) layer is a standard protocol defined by the Bluetooth specification that allows the
Host layer to communicate with the Controller layer. These layers could exist on separate
chips, or they could exist on the same chip.

The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP)

The L2CAP layer acts as a protocol multiplexing layer. It takes multiple protocols from the
upper layers and places them in standard BLE packets. These packets are then passed down
to the lower layers beneath it.

Attribute Protocol (ATT)

The Attribute Protocol (ATT) defines how a server exposes its data to a client and how this
data is structured.

Generic Attribute Profile (GATT)

The Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) defines the format of the data exposed by a BLE
device. It also defines the procedures needed to access the data exposed by a device.

There are two Roles within GATT: Server and Client. The Server is the device that exposes
the data it controls or contains and possibly some other aspects of its behaviour that other
devices may be able to control.

A Client, on the other hand, is the device that interfaces with the Server with the purpose of
reading the Server’s exposed data and/or controlling the Server’s behavior. Keep in mind that
a Bluetooth LE device can act as the Server and a Client at the same time.

To understand the GATT, you need to understand Services and Characteristics. Services are
a grouping of one or more Attributes (a generic term for any type of data exposed by the
server). It’s meant to group together related Attributes that satisfy a specific functionality on
the Server. For example, the SIG-adopted Battery Service contains one Characteristic called
the Battery Level.
A Characteristic is always part of a Service, representing a piece of information/data that a
Server wants to expose to a client. For example, the Battery Level Characteristic represents
the remaining power level of a battery in a device that can be read by a Client.

In BLE, there are six types of operations on Characteristics:

1. Commands
2. Requests
3. Responses
4. Notifications
5. Indications
6. Confirmations

Generic Access Profile (GAP)

The GAP provides a framework that defines how BLE devices interact with each other. This
includes:

 Roles of BLE devices

 Advertisements (Broadcasting, Discovery, Advertisement parameters, Advertisement
data)
 Connection establishment (initiating connections, accepting connections, Connection
parameters)
 Security

The different roles of a Bluetooth LE device are:

 Broadcaster: a device that sends out Advertisements and does not receive packets or
allow Connections from others.
 Observer: a device that listens to others sending out Advertising Packets but does not
initiate a Connection with an Advertising device.
 Central: a device that discovers and listens to other devices that are Advertising. A
Central also has the capability of connecting to an Advertising device.
 Peripheral: a device that Advertises and accepts Connections from Central devices.
Keep in mind that a single device may operate in multiple Roles at the same time. For
example, your smartphone can operate in the Central role when communicating with your
smartwatch and also act in the Peripheral role while communicating with a PC.

LoRA (LONG RANGE) :

LoRa is a wireless audio frequency technology that operates in a
license-free radio frequency spectrum. LoRa is a physical layer
protocol that uses spread spectrum modulation and supports long-
range communication at the cost of a narrow bandwidth.
LoRa is purely a physical (PHY), or “bits” layer implementation, as defined by the OSI
seven-layer Network Model. Instead of cabling, the air is used as a medium for transporting
LoRa radio waves from an RF transmitter in an IoT device to an RF receiver in a gateway,
and vice versa.
LoRa is ideal for applications that transmit small chunks of data with low bit rates. Data can
be transmitted at a longer range compared to technologies like WiFi, Bluetooth or ZigBee.
These features make LoRa well suited for sensors and actuators that operate in low power
mode.

LoRa is an RF modulation technology for low-power, wide area networks (LPWANs). The
name, LoRa, is a reference to the extremely long-range data links that this technology enables.
Created by Semtech to standardize LPWANs, LoRa provides for long-range communications:
up to three miles (five kilometers) in urban areas, and up to 10 miles (15 kilometers) or more
in rural areas (line of sight). A key characteristic of the LoRa-based solutions is ultra-low power
requirements, which allows for the creation of battery-operated devices that can last for up to
10 years. Deployed in a star topology, a network based on the open LoRaWAN protocol is
perfect for applications that require long-range or deep in-building communication among a
large number of devices that have low power requirements and that collect small amounts of
data.

Consider the differences between LoRa and other network technologies that are typically used
in IoT or traditional machine-to-machine (M2M) connectivity solutions:

Figure 1: IoT Technologies

Figure 2 highlights some important advantages of deploying a LoRaWAN network:

Figure 2: Advantages of deploying a LoRaWAN network

Let’s look into these advantages in a little more depth.

With respect to range, a single LoRa-based gateway can receive and transmit signals over a
distance of more than 10 miles (15 kilometers) in rural areas. Even in dense urban
environments, messages are able to travel up to three miles (five kilometers), depending on
how deep indoors the end devices (end nodes) are located.
As far as battery life goes, the energy required to transmit a data packet is quite minimal given
that the data packets are very small and only transmitted a few times a day. Furthermore, when
the end devices are asleep, the power consumption is measured in milliwatts (mW), allowing
a device’s battery to last for many, many years.

When it comes to capacity, a LoRaWAN network can support millions of messages. However,
the number of messages supported in any given deployment depends upon the number of
gateways that are installed. A single eight-channel gateway can support a few hundred
thousand messages over the course of a 24-hour period. If each end device sends 10 messages
a day, such a gateway can support about 10,000 devices1. If the network includes 10 such
gateways, the network can support roughly 100,000 devices and one million messages. If more
capacity is required, all that is needed is to add additional gateways to the network.

And then, there is cost. Given the capabilities of LoRa-based end nodes and gateways, only a
few gateways – configured in a star network – are required to serve a multitude of end nodes.
This means that capital and operational expenses can be kept relatively low. Also, when the
cost-effective LoRa RF modules that are embedded in inexpensive end nodes are used in
conjunction with the open LoRaWAN standard, the return on investment can be considerable.

Radio Modulation and LoRa

A proprietary spread-spectrum modulation technique derived from existing Chirp Spread

Spectrum (CSS) technology, LoRa offers a trade-off between sensitivity and data rate, while
operating in a fixed-bandwidth channel of either 125 KHz or 500 KHz (for uplink channels),
and 500 KHz (for downlink channels). Additionally, LoRa uses orthogonal spreading factors.
This allows the network to preserve the battery life of connected end nodes by making adaptive
optimizations of an individual end node’s power levels and data rates. For example, an end
device located close to a gateway should transmit data at a low spreading factor, since very
little link budget is needed. However, an end device located several miles from a gateway will
need to transmit with a much higher spreading factor. This higher spreading factor provides
increased processing gain, and higher reception sensitivity, although the data rate will,
necessarily, be lower.

LoRa is purely a physical (PHY), or “bits” layer implementation, as defined by the OSI seven-
layer Network Model, depicted in Figure 3. Instead of cabling, the air is used as a medium for
transporting LoRa radio waves from an RF transmitter in an IoT device to an RF receiver in a
gateway, and vice versa.
 Figure 3: OSI seven-layer network model

LoRaWAN Network Fundamentals

To fully understand LoRaWAN networks, we will start with a look at the technology stack. As
shown in Figure 7, LoRa is the physical (PHY) layer, i.e., the wireless modulation used to
create the long-range communication link. LoRaWAN is an open networking protocol that
delivers secure bi-directional communication, mobility, and localization services standardized
and maintained by the LoRa Alliance.

Figure 7: LoRaWAN technology stack

LoRaWAN Network Elements: An Introduction
Now that we have a basic understanding of LoRa, we will examine the architecture of a
LoRaWAN network. Figure 8 shows a typical LoRaWAN network implementation from end
to end.

Figure 8: Typial LoRaWAN network implementation

LoRa-based End Devices:

A LoRaWAN-enabled end device is a sensor or an actuator which is wirelessly connected to a

LoRaWAN network through radio gateways using LoRa RF Modulation.

In the majority of applications, an end device is an autonomous, often battery-operated sensor

that digitizes physical conditions and environmental events. Typical use cases for an actuator
include: street lighting, wireless locks, water valve shut off, leak prevention, among others.

When they are being manufactured, LoRa-based devices are assigned several unique
identifiers. These identifiers are used to securely activate and administer the device, to ensure
the safe transport of packets over a private or public network and to deliver encrypted data to
the Cloud.
LoRaWAN Gateways:

A LoRaWAN gateway receives LoRa modulated RF messages from any end device in hearing
distance and forwards these data messages to the LoRaWAN network server (LNS), which is
connected through an IP backbone. There is no fixed association between an end device and a
specific gateway. Instead, the same sensor can be served by multiple gateways in the area. With
LoRaWAN, each uplink packet sent by the end-device will be received by all gateways within
reach, as illustrated in Figure 10. This arrangement significantly reduces packet error rate (since
the chances that at least one gateway will receive the message are very high), significantly
reduces battery overhead for mobile/nomadic sensors, and allows for low-cost geolocation
(assuming the gateways in question are geolocation-capable).

Network Server:
The LoRaWAN network server (LNS) manages the entire network, dynamically controls the
network parameters to adapt the system to ever-changing conditions, and establishes secure
128-bit AES connections for the transport of both the end to end data (from LoRaWAN end
device to the end users Application in the Cloud) as well as for the control of traffic that flows
from the LoRaWAN end device to the LNS (and back). The network server ensures the
authenticity of every sensor on the network and the integrity of every message. At the same
time, the network server cannot see or access the application data.

Application Servers:

Application servers are responsible for securely handling, managing and interpreting sensor
application data. They also generate all the application-layer downlink payloads to the
connected end devices.

Join Server
The join server manages the over-the-air activation process for end devices to be added to the
network.

The join server contains the information required to process uplink join-request frames and
generate the downlink join-accept frames. It signals to the network server which application
server should be connected to the end-device, and performs the network and application session
encryption key derivations. It communicates the Network Session Key of the device to the
network server, and the Application Session Key to the corresponding application server.

Application of LoRA:

LoRa devices have revolutionized the Internet of Things (IoT) by enabling data communication
over a long range while using very little power. When connected to a non-cellular
LoRaWAN® network, sensor devices with LoRa chipsets accommodate a vast range of IoT
applications by transmitting packets with important information. LoRa is the de facto
technology for IoT based on its widespread adoption and will be responsible for connecting the
next billion IoT devices. LoRa is flexible for rural or indoor use cases in smart agriculture,
smart cities, industrial IoT (IIoT), smart environment, smart homes and buildings, smart
utilities and metering, and smart supply chain and logistics.

What is Wi-Fi?

Weall know about Wi-Fi, in our mobile, laptop everywhere Wi-Fi is supported.
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology, by which we can access networks or
connect with other computers or mobile using a wireless medium. In Wi-Fi, data
are transferred over radio frequencies in a circular range.
Wi-Fi, a brand name given by the Wi-Fi Alliance (formerly Wireless Ethernet
Compatibility Alliance), is a generic term that refers to the communication
standard for the wireless network which works as a Local Area Network to operate
without using the cable and any types of wiring. It is known as WLAN. The
communication standard is IEEE 802.11. Wi-Fi works using Physical Data Link
Layer.
Nowadays in all mobile computing devices such as laptops, mobile phones, also
digital cameras, smart TVs has the support of Wi-Fi. The Wi-Fi connection is
established from the access point or base station to the client connection or any
client-to-client connection within a specific range, the range depends on the router
which provides the radio frequency through Wi-Fi. These frequencies operate on
2 types of bandwidth at present, 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.
All the modern laptops and mobiles are capable of using both bandwidths, it
depends on the Wi-Fi adapter which is inside the device to catch the Wi-Fi signal.
2.4 GHz is the default bandwidth supported by all the devices. 2.4 GHz can cover a
big range of areas to spread the Wi-Fi signal but the frequency is low, so in simple
words, the speed of the internet is less and 5 GHz bandwidth is for a lower range
of area but the frequency is high so the speed is very high
Let’s say, if there is an internet connection of 60 MB/s bandwidth, then for 2.4 GHz
bandwidth, it provides approx 30 to 45 MB/s of bandwidth connection and for 5
GHz bandwidth, it provides approx 50 to 57 MB/s bandwidth.

Applications of Wi-Fi :

Wi-Fi has many applications, it is used in all the sectors where a computer or any
digital media is used, also for entertaining Wi-Fi is used. Some of the applications
are mentioned below –

 Accessing Internet: Using Wi-Fi we can access the internet in any Wi-Fi-
capable device wirelessly.
  We can stream or cast audio or video wirelessly on any device using Wi-Fi
for our entertainment.
 We can share files, data, etc between two or more computers or mobile
phones using Wi-Fi, and the speed of the data transfer rate is also very high.
Also, we can print any document using a Wi-Fi printer, this is very much
used nowadays.
 We can use Wi-Fi as HOTSPOTS also, it points Wireless Internet access
for a particular range of area. Using Hotspot the owner of the main network
connection can offer temporary network access to Wi-Fi-capable devices so
that the users can use the network without knowing anything about the main
network connection. Wi-Fi adapters are mainly spreading radio signals
using the owner network connection to provide a hotspot.
 Using Wi-Fi or WLAN we can construct simple wireless connections from
one point to another, known as Point to point networks. This can be useful
to connect two locations that are difficult to reach by wire, such as two
buildings of corporate business.
 One more important application is VoWi-Fi, which is known as voice-over
Wi-Fi. Some years ago telecom companies are introduced VoLTE (Voice
over Long-Term Evolution ). Nowadays they are introduced to VoWi-Fi,
by which we can call anyone by using our home Wi-Fi network, only one
thing is that the mobile needs to connect with the Wi-Fi. Then the voice is
transferred using the Wi-Fi network instead of using the mobile SIM
network, so the call quality is very good. Many mobile phones are already
getting the support of VoWi-Fi.
 Wi-Fi in offices: In an office, all the computers are interconnected using
Wi-Fi. For Wi-Fi, there are no wiring complexities. Also, the speed of the
network is good. For Wi-Fi, a project can be presented to all the members
at a time in the form of an excel sheet, ppt, etc. For Wi-Fi, there is no
network loss as in cable due to cable break.
 Also using W-Fi a whole city can provide network connectivity by
deploying routers at a specific area to access the internet. Already schools,
colleges, and universities are providing networks using Wi-Fi because of its
flexibility.
 Wi-Fi is used as a positioning system also, by which we can detect the
positions of Wi-Fi hotspots to identify a device location.

Types of Wi-Fi:
Wi-Fi has several types of standards, which are discussed earlier, here just the name
of the standards are defined,

Year of
Standards Release Description

Wi-Fi-1 This version has a link speed from 2Mb/s to 11

(802.11b) 1999 Mb/s over a 2.4 GHz frequency band

After a month of release previous version, 802.11a

Wi-Fi-2 was released and it provide up to 54 Mb/s link
(802.11a) 1999 speed over 5 Ghz band

Wi-Fi-3 In this version the speed was increased up to 54 to

(802.11g) 2003 108 Mb/s over 2.4 GHz

This is the same as 802.11g but only the security

802.11i 2004 mechanism was increased in this version

This is also the same as 802.11g, only Voice over

Wireless LAN and multimedia streaming are
802.11e 2004 involved

This version supports both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz

Wi-Fi-4 radio frequency and it offers up to 72 to 600 Mb/s
(802.11n) 2009 speed

Wi-Fi-5
(802.11ac) 2014 It supports a speed of 1733 Mb/s in the 5 GHz band
A new version will release in 2020 named 802.11ax developed by Huawei, which can
support, a maximum of 3.5 Gb/s. it will know Wi-Fi 6.

How does Wi-Fi work?

Wi-Fi is a wireless technology for networking, so it uses Electromagnetic waves to
transmit networks. We know that there are many divisions of Electromagnetic waves
according to their frequency such as X-ray, Gamma-ray, radio wave, microwave, etc,
in Wi-Fi, the radio frequency is used. For transmitting Wi-Fi signal there is three
medium,
 Base station network or an Ethernet(802.3) connection: It is the main
host network from where the network connection is provided to the router.
 Access point or router: it is a bridge between a wired network and a
wireless network. It accepts a wired Ethernet connection and converts the
wired connection to a wireless connection and spreads the connection as a
radio wave.
 Accessing devices: It is our mobile, computer, etc from where we use the
Wi-Fi and surfing internet.

Working of Wi-Fi

All the electronics devices read data in binary form, also router or our devices, here
routers provide radio waves and those waves are receive by our devices and read the
waves in binary form. We all know how a wave looks like, the upper pick of the
wave is known as 1 and the lower pick of the wave is known as 0 in binary. Like
below:
 Data transmission

Some more terminologies

 SSID (Service Set Identifier): It is a 32 character name that identifies the
Wi-Fi network and differentiates one Wi-Fi from another Wi-Fi. All the
devices are attempting to connect a particular SSID. Simply, SSID is the
name of the wireless network.
 WPA-PSK (Wi-Fi Protected Access- Pre-Shared Key): It is a program
developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance Authority to secure wireless networks with
the use of Pre-Shared Key(PSK) authentication. WPA has 3 types, such as
WPA. WPA2, WPA3. It is a way of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal to protect
from unwanted users.
 Wi-Fi uses Ad-Hoc networks to transmit. It is a point-to-point network
without any interface.

How signals are reached to our devices?

 Base Station

Advantages of Wi-Fi

 It is a flexible network connection, no wiring complexities. Can be accessed

from anywhere in the Wi-Fi range.
 It does not require regulatory approval for individual users.
 It is salable, can be expanded by using Wi-Fi Extenders.
 It can be set up in an easy and fast way. Just need to configure the SSID and
Password.
 Security in a high in Wi-Fi network, its uses WPA encryption to encrypt
radio signals.
 It is also lower in cost.
 It also can provide Hotspots.
 it supports roaming also.

Disadvantages of Wi-Fi

 Power consumption is high while using Wi-Fi in any device which has a
battery, such as mobile, laptops, etc.
 Many times there may be some security problems happening even it has
encryption. Such as many times has known devices become unknown to the
router, Wi-Fi can be hacked also.
  Speed is slower than a direct cable connection.
 It has lower radiation like cell phones, so it can harm humans.
 Wi-Fi signals may be affected by climatic conditions like thunderstorms.
 Unauthorized access to Wi-Fi can happen because it does not have a
firewall.
 To use Wi-Fi we need a router, which needs a power source, so at the time
of power cut, we cannot access the internet.

WiFi Module - ESP8266 (4MB Flash)

The ESP8266 WiFi Module is a self contained SOC with integrated TCP/IP protocol stack
that can give any microcontroller access to your WiFi network.
The ESP8266 is capable of either hosting an application or offloading all WiFi networking
functions from another application processor. Each ESP8266 module comes pre-programmed
with an AT command set firmware, meaning, you can simply hook this up to your Arduino
device and get about as much WiFi-ability as a WiFi Shield offers (and that's just out of the
box)! The ESP8266 module is an extremely cost effective board with a huge, and ever
growing, community.
Wifi modules or wifi microcontrollers are used to send and receive data over WiFi. They can
also accept commands over the Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi modules are used for communications
bewtween devices. They are most commonly used in the field of Internet of Thnigs.
Interfacing ESP 8266 with Arduino Board:
GSM (Global System For Mobile Communication):
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a set of mobile communications
standards and protocols governing second-generation or 2G networks, first developed and
deployed in Europe.
GSM is a digital cellular communication standard that is universally accepted. The European
Telecommunications Standards Institute created the GSM standard to define the procedures
for second-generation digital mobile networks that are used by devices such as mobile
phones. It is a wide-area communications technology program that utilizes digital radio
channeling to bring forth audio, information, and multimedia communication systems.
GSM is a mobile network and not a computer network this implies that devices interact with
it by looking for nearby cells. GSM, including other technological advances, has influenced
the evolution of mobile wireless telecommunication services. A GSM system manages
communication between mobile stations, base stations, and switching systems.

Every GSM radio channel is 200 kHz wide and is additionally divided into frames of 8-time
slots. The global system for mobile communication (GSM) was first known as Groupe
Special Mobile, which is the reason for the acronym. The GSM system comprises mobile
stations, base stations, and intertwining switching systems.
The GSM program enables 8 to 16 audio users to share every radio channel, and every radio
transmission location may have multiple radio channels. Because of its simplicity,
affordability, and accessibility, GSM is presently the most commonly used network
technology in the Internet of Things (IoT).

The Architecture of GSM:

The GSM architecture is made up of three central systems. The following are the primary
components of the GSM architecture:

 The network switching system (NSS)

 The mobile station (MS)

 The base station system (BSS)

 The operations and support system (OSS)

1. The network switching system (NSS)
NSS is a GSM element that provides flow management and call processing for mobile
devices moving between base stations. The switching system consists of the functional units
listed below.

 Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC): Mobile Switching Center is

integral to the GSM network architecture’s central network space. The MSC

supports call switching across cellular phones and other fixed or mobile

network users. It also monitors cellular services, including registration, location

updates, and call forwarding to a roaming user.

  Home Location Register (HLR): It is a set of data items used for storing and

managing subscriptions. It provides data for each consumer as well as their last

known position. The HLR is regarded as the most significant database because

it preserves enduring records about users. When a person purchases a

membership from one of the operators, they are enlisted in that operator’s HLR.

 Visitor Location Register (VLR): VLR is a database that provides subscriber

information necessary for the MSC to service passengers. This includes a short-

term version of most of the data stored in the HLR. The visitor location register

can also be run as a standalone program, but it is usually implemented as a

component of the MSC.

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It is the component that determines if

one can use particular mobile equipment on the system. This consists of a list of

every functioning mobile device on the system, with each mobile device

recognized by its own International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number.

 Authentication Center (AuC): The AUC is a unit that offers verification and

encryption factors to ensure the user’s identity and the privacy of every call.

The verification center is a secure file that contains the user’s private key in the

SIM card. The AUC shields network operators from various types of fraud

prevalent in the modern-day cellular world.

2. The mobile station (MS)

The mobile station is a cell phone with a display, digital signal processor, and radio
transceiver regulated by a SIM card that functions on a system. Hardware and the SIM card
are the two most essential elements of the MS. The MS (Mobile stations) is most widely
recognized by cell phones, which are components of a GSM mobile communications network
that the operator monitors and works.
Currently, their size has shrunk dramatically while their capabilities have
skyrocketed. Additionally, the time between charges has been significantly improved.

3. The base station system (BSS)

It serves as a connection between the network subsystem and the mobile station. It consists of
two parts:

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS is responsible for radio

connection protocols with the MS and contains the cell’s radio transceivers.

Companies may implement a significant number of BTSs in a big metropolitan

area. Each network cell has transceivers and antennas that make up the BTS.

Based on the cell’s consumer density, every BTS includes anywhere from one

to sixteen transceivers.

 The Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC is responsible for managing the

radio resources of one or more BTS(s). This manages radio channel

configuration and handovers. The BSC serves as the link seen between mobile

and MSC. It allocates and emits MS frequency bands and time

slots. Additionally, the BSC is responsible for intercell handover and transmits

the BSS and MS power within its jurisdiction.

4. The operations and support system (OSS)

The operation support system (OSS) is a part of the overall GSM network design. This is
linked to the NSS and BSC components. The OSS primarily manages the GSM network and
BSS traffic load. As the number of BS increases due to customer population scaling, a few
maintenance duties are shifted to the base transceiver stations, lowering the system’s
financial responsibility. The essential purpose of OSS is to have a network synopsis and
assist various services and maintenance organizations with their routine maintenance
arrangements.

Top 4 Applications of GSM

The critical applications of GSM technology include:

1. Sending and receiving short messages

The ability to send and receive text messages to and from mobile phones is known as the
Short Message Service (SMS). SMS provides services related to two-way paging, except with
more features incorporated into the cell device or port. Text messaging allows a cell phone
user to receive a quick short message on their cell phone. Similarly, that user can compose a
brief message to send to other users.
SMS delivers short text messages of up to 140 octets over the GSM platform’s control system
air interface. The Short Message Service Center (SMSC) stores and transmits short messages
from mobile users to their intended recipients. One may use it to send and receive brief
messages, saving time due to the rapid transmission of communications. Furthermore, there is
no need to go online; the mobile device has a signal, and it can send and receive short
messages.

2. GSM and data security

Data security is the most crucial factor for usage operators. Specific aspects are now
implemented in GSM to improve security. There is currently an indication for ME and MS in
this framework. The system proposes two subsystems. The appliance control subsystem
allows users to remotely control household appliances, while the security alert subsystem
provides fully automated security monitoring.
This same system can instruct users via SMS from a particular phone number on how to
change the condition of the home appliance based on the person’s needs and preferences. The
client is configured via SIM, allowing the system to observe Mobile subscribers on the
database. GSM also includes features for signal encryption.
The second element of GSM security is security alert, which would be accomplished in such
a way that upon identification of an invasion, the system would allow for the automatic
creation of SMS, thereby notifying the user of a potential threat.
GSM technology will enable communication with anyone, wherever, at any moment. GSM’s
functional architecture employs sophisticated networking principles, and its idea offers the
advancement of GSM as the first move towards an authentic personal communication
network with sufficient homogeneity to guarantee compatibility.

3. GSM for mobile system handover

The procedure of handover in any mobile system is critical. It is a necessary process, so
handover could lead to call loss if done improperly. Undelivered calls could be especially
aggravating to subscribers, and as the percentage of undelivered calls grows, so does user
dissatisfaction, so they’re more likely to switch to another network.
As a result, GSM handover was given special consideration when creating the standard.
Whenever a cellular customer switches cells, the radio signal shifts from past to new. Even
though the GSM network is complicated, in contrast to other systems, the flexibility of the
GSM procedure provides better performance to subscribers. In a GSM network, there are four
basic types of handoffs:

 Intra-cell handover: This type of handover is used to improve data traffic in

the cell or to strengthen connection performance by modifying the carrier

signal.

 Inter-cell handover: Additionally, it is known as intra-BSC handover. In this

instance, the mobile changes cells while remaining in the BSC. Here, the BSC

is in control of the transfer procedure.

 Inter-BSC handover: It’s also known as an intra-MSC handover. Because

BSC can only handle a restricted number of cells, we may have to move a

phone from one BSC to the other. Here, the handover is managed by the MSC.

 Inter-MSC handoff: This occurs when a mobile device moves from one MSC

area to the next. MSC is spread over a wide area.

4. GSM in medical services

If the patient is severely injured or sick, but all they have access to is a phone, trying to
connect with the closest hospital would be simple. If the patient is connected to the doctor,
they can receive initial care while on the way to the healthcare facility. In the event of a
disease, doctors can review patient history and prepare for additional tests while providing
proper care.
Whenever a patient, attendant, or hospital member of staff becomes stranded on hospital
grounds due to a power outage, GSM-fixed cellular terminals allow the individual to connect
very fast with the closest emergency responders. An individual in that circumstance can
request help using the GSM SIM in the installed Fixed Cellular Terminal (FCT).
Telemedicine services are responsible for the entire situation. One could use the telemedicine
system in any of the three ways listed below.

 Utilizing video conferencing, patients seated in one location can directly

communicate with physicians, thus continuing the healing process.

 Leveraging health monitoring sensors that continuously update information

about the patient’s health and guide hospitals and doctors to continue treatment.

 Conveying the obtained health records and transmitting obtained data for

consultation and processing.