Techno Star College

TECHNO STAR COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF Management

Distance Module for Degree

Program
Administrative and Business
Communication
(MGMT 2062)
Distance Education Program

2013 E. C

Axum, Ethiopia

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Contents
CHAPTER ONE...........................................................................................................................................................2
COMMUNICATION-AN OVERVIEW...........................................................................................................................2
1.1. Meaning of Communication..........................................................................................................................2
1.2 Significance of Communication......................................................................................................................3
1.3 Communication in Management....................................................................................................................3
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO..........................................................................................................................................................5
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION........................................................................................................................5
2.1 The elements of Communication...................................................................................................................5
2.2. TheProcess of Communication......................................................................................................................6
2.3 Barriers to Communication.............................................................................................................................9
Loss of information in upward communication..............................................................................................10
2.4.Interpersonal communication and team work.............................................................................................12
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................................................15
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES..............................................................................................................15
3.1. Principle of Completeness...........................................................................................................................15
3.2. Principle of Conciseness..............................................................................................................................15
3.3. Principle of Concreteness............................................................................................................................16
3.4. Principle of Clarity.......................................................................................................................................17
3.5. Principle of Correctness...............................................................................................................................19
3.6Principle of Consideration.............................................................................................................................20
3.7. Principle of Courtesy...................................................................................................................................22
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS...........................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................................................................25
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS.................................................................................................25
4.1 Internal and External communication..........................................................................................................25
Communication Channels and Functions...........................................................................................................25
4.2.Formal flow of Communication....................................................................................................................27
CHAPTER FIVE.........................................................................................................................................................34
PUBLIC RELATION...................................................................................................................................................34
5.1. DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS............................................................................................................35
Self-assessment tests.........................................................................................................................................38
CHAPTER SIX.......................................................................................................................................................39
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION............................................................................................................................39
6.1ORAL COMMUNICATION...............................................................................................................................39

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CHAPTER ONE:- COMMUNICATION-AN OVERVIEW

At the end of this chapter learner willable to:
 Understand Meaning of Communication
 Explain characteristics of communication
 Write significance of communication
 Describe role of communication in an organization
1.1. Meaning of Communication

The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communes”, which means common. Literally,
to communicate means to tell, show, spread and inform. As communication is a much more complex
factor in our present world, not surprisingly, the problem of defining it as a subject of study has also
become increasingly difficult. For our purposes, however, we can define communication as: The process
by which people attempt to share meaning (ideas, feeling, thought, experience, knowledge, skill, etc) for
some purpose through the transmission of symbolic messages.
Communication is a two-fold process between two parties- the sender and the receiver. It involves an
exchange and progression of thoughts, ideas, knowledge and information towards a mutually accepted
goal or direction. Here are some definitions by experts:
American Society of Training Directors: Communication is the interchange of thought or information
to bring about mutual understanding and confidence or global human relation.
Behind Brown: Communication is the transmission and interchange of facts, ideas, feelings or course of
action.
Alien Louis A.: Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create
understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling,
listening and understanding.
Ordway Tead: Communicating is a composite of information given and received, of a learning
experience in which certain attitudes, knowledge and skills change, carving with them alterations of
behavior, of listening effort by all involved, of a sympathetic fresh examination of issues by the
communicator himself, of a sensitive interacting points of view, leading to a higher level of shared
understanding and common intention.
Theo Haiemann: Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another. It is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others.
M.T. Myers and G.E. Myers: Communication refers to a special kind of patterning: patterning, which
is expressed in symbolic form. For communication to take place between or among people, two
requirements must be met:
A symbolic system must be shared by the people involved (we need to speak the same language or
jargon or dialects) and the associations between the symbols and their referents must be shared.
Some interesting comments about communication
Davis: "Process of passing information and understanding from one person to another... The only way
that management can be achieved in an organization is through the process of communication".
Chester Barnard: in exhaustive theory of organization, communication would occupy a central place
because the structure, extensiveness and scope of organizations are almost entirely determined by
communication techniques.
Our working definition of communication calls attention to the following five essential points.
1) Communication is a process: Communication refers to a series of activities to be accomplished
in a sequence; it does not refer to incidental events and transactions among people.
2) Communication is purposeful: When senders - receivers communicate the sender originally
should have an objective to be checked at the end of the communication process. Communication is not
just the transfer of messages but purposeful transfer of messages between senders and receivers. Thus it
does not refer to incidental transactions between people.
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3) Communication involves people: Communication shows the degree of understanding among

senders-receivers and how they relate to each other. Therefore, it refers to communication among people
and the exchange of interpersonal behaviors among them.
4) Communication involves shared meaning: This suggests that in order for people to
communicate, they must agree on the definitions of the terms and symbols they are using. The symbols
used by the sender should be similarly interpreted by the receiver in order to ensure equal or similar
understanding between them.
5) Communication is symbolic: In communication symbols such as, letters, numbers, words,
gestures, sound, etc can only represent or approximate the ideas they are meant to communicate. In other
words symbols are not perfect representations of our ideas. Thus we have to take care in selecting symbols
that best approximate the sender’s ideas.
Communication is vital to human existence. It is how we pass on to others our thoughts and feelings, tell
them what we want them to do, ask them to help us, share with them our knowledge and experience.
Without communication we would each live as if alone in the world.
Self-test exercise 1
1. What are the five essential points about definition of communication?
1.2 Significance of Communication
Even though all people including you are emotional-rational beings, still you are unique from others in
that you have geared your career to successful business management. Therefore you have assumed the
obligation of striving, ethically and efficiently, to use thoughts and feelings ideas and emotions, actions and
reactions in leading your life and conducting your work.
To be specific communication serves the following three purposes in personal or individual life.
Job Success: The two dimensions of management most often cited as the keys to individual and
organizational success are technical ability and understanding of people. Effective communication skills to
listen, speak, and write complement these two dimensions. Therefore enhance ones job success, a person
learn the art of human relations to effectively communicate her/his ideas, experiences, thoughts, skills and
feelings.
Personal Satisfaction: Mastery on a certain area goes beyond vocational success or promotion, i.e.
personal satisfaction. Thus communication skill can be a source of personal satisfaction, particularly in the
areas of art such as writing, painting, etc.
Meeting Social and Ethical obligations:A person may be in conflict with him/herself, with other people,
and/or with the community at large. With the help of communication people continue adjusting profitably
to themselves, to other people, to the environment in which they live and work. It is a means of winning
respect and confidence from other people or from the community at large.
As you attempt to fulfill yourself in business and in the private aspect of your life, your brain enables you
to identify, classify, relate and solve issues. But in responding to your environment, you generate both
emotions and ideas. You feel as well as think. Through such experiences you continue adjusting
profitably to yourself to other people, to the environment in which you and they live, cooperate and
compete. In brief, effective communication is a key to success in personal life and in business career.

1.3 Communication in Management

Planning Organizing Staffing Directing Controlling

Communication

External Environment
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Customers
Suppliers
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As a student or an employee, whatever you academic classification or job title may be, you participate in
the coordination of resources and objectives. In doing so you participate in management, the continuing
process of achieving order efficiently through intelligent decisions that govern an organization.
Simultaneously, you participate in communication, the reciprocal process of sharing information
through symbols, principally words. Communication is essential to sound management; your success as
a manager- a person who is in charge of coordinating the human and non-human resources of an
organization- greatly depends upon your ability to communicate effectively.
Communication is essential to each of the five basic functions of management. In order to plan, organize,
staff, direct and control, managers must be able to communicate with other persons- and communicate
well. Information from others helps formulate plans; information provided to others defines job
assignments and helps organize work; information on standards, progress and personal factors fulfills the
directing function; while information in the form of written and oral progress reports is a fundamental
element in controlling. Communication is a linking process that enables each of the basic functions of
management to be carried. Effective communication is therefore the “life blood” of every organization.
We already have made the claim that communication is vital to the very existence of an organization. To
understand the validity of that claim, one must understand the role communication plays in an
organization’s life. The following figure tries to illustrate specific elements of that role.
Role of communication in an organization
Directives Communication Employee Productivity
Employee
Motivation job Quality
performance Quantity
Ability performanc
and attitude Personnel
Resources e
Related costs

To the right of the figure are the elements comprising an organization’s productivity: the quality of the
work done in the organization, the quantity of the work done, the personnel related costs involved in
getting the work done (such as turnover or absenteeism among employees), and the non-personnel
related costs of getting work done (such as wasted materials, scrap, and so on). Naturally, organizations
want to improve productivity by maximizing the quality and quantity of work completed and
minimizing the personnel and non-personnel costs involved in work performance.
Just to the left is the primary factor that determines productivity in organizations the employee’s job
performance. What employees do in the workplace determines how much work gets done and how well
it is done, how costly their own behaviors are and to a large extent, how much is spent on materials and
equipment.
At the far left are the four major factors that ultimately shape an employee’s performance.
1 . The employee’s motivation to do the job.
2. The directions the employee receives concerning what to do and how to do it.
3. The ability of the employee to do the job.
4 The resources with which the employee is provided to do the job.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Part I: True or False
1. The term communication is derived from the Grec word “Communis”, which means common.

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2. Communication is essential to each of the five basic functions of management.

3. With the help of communication people continue adjusting profitably to themselves, to other
people, to the environment in which they live and work.
4. Every communication event stems from a series of past events and triggers a series of new ones is
uniqueness.
5. Communication has been characterized as the “life-blood” of an organization.
Part II: Multiple Choices
1. One of the following is not correct about communication.
A. Communication involves people
B. Communication is a static
C. Communication is symbolic
D. Communication is purposeful
2. Mastery on a certain area goes beyond vocational success or promotion is:
A. Personal Satisfaction
B. Job Success
C. Meeting Social and Ethical obligations
D. All
3. One of the following is not Characteristics of communication?
A. Dynamism
B. Uniqueness
C. Transactional Nature
D. All
E. None of the answer

CHAPTER TWO: -THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Objectives: At the end of this chapter learner will able to:

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 Understand the elements of communication process.

 Explain the barrier to communication.
 Identify the verbal and nonverbal communication.
Understand channels of nonverbal communication.
2.1 The elements of Communication
Communication takes place in the relationship between a sender and a receiver. It can flow in one
direction and ends there.
1. Sender:
The sender/source of message initiates the communication. In an organization the sender will be a person
with information, needs or desires and a purpose for communicating them to one or more other people.
2. Receiver:
The person whose senses perceive the sender's message. There may be a large number of receivers, as
when a memo is addressed to all members of an organization or there may be just one, as when one
discusses something privately with a colleague.
3. Encoding:
It takes place when the sender translates the information to be transmitted into a series of symbols.
4. Decoding:
The process by which, the receiver interprets the message and translates it into meaningful information.
It's a two-step process.
5. Channel:
The formal medium of communication between a sender and a receiver.
6. Noise:
Any factor that disturbs, confuses or interferes with communication. Noise can arise along what is called
the communications channel or method of transmission.
7. Message:
The encoded information sent by the sender to the receiver.
8. Feedback:
It's the response of the receiver to the sender, also passes through the same process.
Activity 1 What is sender in communication?
Self-test exercise 1
1. Write the elements of communication?
Answer for Self-test exercise 1
1. The elements of communication are likesender, receiver, encoding, decoding, channel, noise,
message and feedback.
2.2. TheProcess of Communication
People (Senders - Receivers)
Communicators or elements are the primary elements in the communication process in an organization.
They can be managers, non-managers, departments, or the organization itself. Managers communicate
with other managers, subordinates, supervisors, client’s customers, and parties outside the organization.
When we say communication involves people, it involves the exchange of interpersonal characteristics
such as perceptions, their speaking and listening skills, their nonverbal behaviors, etc. Communication is
thus an interpersonal process. People or senders-receivers make communication two ways.
Communications within the organization are important means for coordinating the work of separate
departments. And more and more organizations communicate with employees, unions, the public, and
government. Each of these communicators has a message, an idea, or information to transmit to
someone or some group.
Encoding
Within the communicator, an encoding process must take place that translates the communicator’s ideas
into a systematic set of symbols expressing the communicator’s purpose. The major form of encoding is
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language. For example, accounting information, sales reports, and computer data are translated into a
message. The function of encoding is to provide a form in which ideas and purposes can be expressed
as a message.
Message
The result of the encoding is the message-either verbal or nonverbal. Message is a meaningful idea that
people want to share with others. It is an encoded idea with some purpose. Managers have numerous
purposes for communicating, such as to have others understand their ideas, to understand the ideas of
others to gain acceptance of ideas, and to produce action.
The message, then, is what the individual hopes to communicate, and the exact form that the message
takes depends to a great extent on the medium used to carry it. Decisions relating to the two are
inseparable. An ideal message is that is understood by the receiver as intended by the sender.
Channel
The channel is a path, route or medium through which a message is transmitted. Organizations provide
information for their members by a variety of channels, including face-to-face communication,
telephone, group meetings, computers, memos, policy statements, reward systems, production
schedules, sales forecasts, and videotapes.
Less obvious, however, are unintended messages that can be sent by silence or inaction of a particular
issue, as well as decisions about which goals and objectives are not to be pursued and which methods
are not to be utilized. The choice between oral and written communication channels may be determined
by:
 Background of the audience such as education, sex, age, experience, etc.
 Availability and cost of the channel
 Nature of the message such as confidentiality, length, etc.
Nonverbal communication, communication that doesn’t use words, is a part of everyday life. A friendly
smile, a worried expression, the seating arrangements at a committee meeting, the size and location of
an office, the reception area, furniture all are nonverbal communicators. They indicate a person’s power,
status, position or friendliness. The interpretation of nonverbal cues is important however; nonverbal
cues are as easily misinterpreted as verb al messages (words).
Body language is fascinating nonverbal communication open body positions include leaning forward wit
uncrossed arms and legs. Closed, or defensive, body positions include leaning back with arms and legs
crossed. Open positions are assumed to suggest acceptance and openness to what is being discussed.
Closed positions suggest that people are physically or psychologically uncomfortable.
Decoding
For the process of communication to be completed, the message must be decoded by the receiver.
Decoding is the technical term for the thought processes of the receiver. Thus, it involves interpretation.
Receivers interpret (decode) the message in light of their own previous experiences and frames of
reference. The closer the decoded message is to the intent of the communication, the more effective is
the communication. In a business organization, if the message that the chief executive receives from the
marketing research department includes technical terms known only to marketing researchers, no
communication exists. In fact, an often cited complaint in organizations that employ staff specialists is
that they frequently cannot communicate. Each staff group (e.g accountants, personnel, and marketing
research) has a unique language and symbols that persons outside the group cannot decode.
Feedback
One-way communication processes do not allow receiver-to-communicator feedback. Two-way
communication processes provide for such feedback. It is desirable to make provision for feedback in
the communication process. It decreases the potential for distortion between the intended message and
the received message. A feedback loop provides a channel for receiver response, enabling the
communicator to determine whether the message has been received and has produced the intended
response. For the manager, communication feedback may come in many ways.
In face-to-face situations direct feedback is possible through verbal exchanges as well as through such
subtle, means as facial expressions that indicate discontent or misunderstanding. In addition,
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communication break downs may be indicated by indirect means, such as declines in productivity, poor
quality of production increased absenteeism or turnover, and conflict or a lack of coordination between
units.
Effective Use of Feedback
For effective use of feedback the following guidelines are vital.
Guidelines in receiving feedback
1. Tell people you want feedback. When people feel that their opinions and observations may be used
against them or that your feelings may be easily hurt, they withhold feedback. Therefore, let them know
that you consider feedback (including personal opinions, questions, and disagreement) not only useful
but also necessary.
2. Identify the areas in which you want feedback. If you want personal feedback, you might say, “I am
trying to improve my speaking and am interested in how many times I said ‘okay’ in today’s meeting.”
If you want only feedback pertaining to the organization, then specify the topics in which you are most
interested.
3. If you are a manager, set aside time for regularly scheduled feedback sessions. Such sessions show
employees that you value feedback and tend to make it easier for them to ask questions and express
opinions.
4. Use silence to encourage feedback. Too many people ask a question wait two or three seconds, and
then begin talking again. It takes more than two or three seconds for most people to organize and
verbalize their responses. If you remain silent for at least a full ten seconds, you will probably get more
response.
5. Watch for nonverbal responses- because none verbal symbols may comply or contradict with
nonverbal symbols.
6. Ask questions. Do not assume that you understand the meaning of the feedback you receive from
others. When in doubt, ask for clarification.
7. Use statements that encourage feedback. People usually adjust their feedback by monitoring the
listener’s verbal and nonverbal reactions. If you want a person’s honest opinion, you must encourage it
by purposely saying such things as “Really?” “Interesting. ”So, you feel that . . . “
8. Reward feedback. If you are a manager, you can reward feedback by complimenting the person,
preferably in front of his or her colleagues. Some companies have a “Best-Idea-of-the-month” contest
and put the winners’ names on a placard or give them a company pen with their names engraved on
them. As an employee, you can sincerely thank people for their comments and perhaps write them a
thank-you note.

Guidelines in sending feedback

In sending feedback make sure your own feedback to others:
Is directed toward behavior rather than toward the person- Often, someone who is angry criticizes the
person rather than the behavior that caused the anger. Telling a secretary “You are a poor excuse for a
secretary” is an attack on the secretary rather than on the offensive behavior and causes a defensive,
emotional response. Your feedback is much more likely to be received positively if you mention the
action or behavior that is unacceptable and focus on what can be done to avoid it in the future.
Is descriptive instead of evaluative- Descriptive feedback is tactfully honest and objective, whereas
evaluative feedback is judgmental and accusatory. Evaluative feedback: “Where is your sales report?
You know it is due on my desk no later than 9:00 each morning. You’re obviously not reliable
anymore.” Descriptive feedback: “When you don’t turn your sales reports in on time, I’m unable to
complete the departmental sales report on time. This makes me look bad and the departments look bad.
You’ve been late twice this month. Is there something I can do to help you get those reports in on
time?” Evaluative, judgmental words cause defensiveness and hurt feelings; words that simply describe
the situation in a nonjudgmental way are more likely to result in cooperation.
Involves sharing ideas instead of giving advice- It is not always sensible to give advice to other people.
If your advice does not work, you will be blamed. One of the best ways to improve a relationship is by
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openly sharing opinions and ideas. Suppose a manager who is having trouble with some employees
comes to you and asks, “What am I doing wrong?” Instead of giving advice, share a personal
experience with the manager. For example, you might describe a similar problem you had and how you
handled it. It is then up to the manager to decide what to do.
Includes only as much information as the person can handle at one time. Suppose during a
performance appraisal you give an employee a list of twenty items that need improvement. Is this
type of feedback beneficial? You may feel better now that you have “dumped” your feelings, but how
can anyone improve on twenty things at the same time? When giving feedback, include only two or
three suggestions at a time-a number the person can reasonably handle.
Is immediate and well time- Immediate feedback is obviously more valuable than delayed feedback.
After a foul-up shipping, instead of waiting for two weeks to discuss the problem with the responsible
employee, discuss the error immediately or at least within a day or two. Immediate feedback allows the
person to correct actions or behaviors while they are still fresh in mind. But feedback should also be
well timed, and sometimes this means that it can’t be immediate. If you point out an employee’s
mistakes in front of a group of co-workers, such feedback is likely to be resented. And if you confront
an employee anxious to get home after quitting time, your suggestions may be received absent
mindedly. This type of feedback should be given in a private, relaxed atmosphere. Unfortunately, many
people tend to give feedback in anger and don’t stop to consider the consequences.
Noise
In the framework of communications noise is any interfering factor that, if present, can distort the
intended message. Noise can be present in any element. i.e. the sender, channel or receiver. Noises are
of two types: Psychological noise and Physical noise. Physical noise is unwanted sound created in the
external environment or in transmission. On the other hand psychological noise is created in the mind of
senders-receivers. It generally refers to absentmindedness that may be caused by pain, hunger, headache,
and other factors that preoccupy human mind.
Activity 2 a. What are elements of the communication process?
b. Explain the Guidelines in receiving and sending feedback?
Self-test exercise 2
 Explain what is message?
 Discuss what is encoding?
Answer forSelf-test exercise 2
1. Message is a meaningful idea that people want to share with others. It is an encoded idea with some
purpose. Managers have numerous purposes for communicating, such as to have others understand
their ideas, to understand the ideas of others to gain acceptance of ideas, and to produce action.
2. An encoding process must take place that translates the communicator’s ideas into a systematic set
of symbols expressing the communicator’s purpose. The major form of encoding is language. . The
function of encoding is to provide a form in which ideas and purposes can be expressed as a
message.
2.3 Barriers to Communication
Any factor that impedes the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver is a barrier to
communication.
It is not possible that every time an order, instruction, guideline, direction programme, information, etc
transmitted by the superior is properly understood and assimilated by those for whom it is intended.
Similarly suggestions, reports, advices recommendations, complaints etc transmitted by the subordinates
to their superiors may be misunderstood or misinterpreted. In any case, the purpose of the
communication is defeated.
The process of communication is not always smooth. Many obstacles or hindrances obstruct it. These
are referred to as barriers to communication. It refers to these factors which cause disturbance either in
the mind of the communicator (sender) or the communicate (receiver) or in the process which will create
distortion of the message leading to lack of response ignoring or misunderstanding.

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Such barriers are extremely common in everyday life, and they appear in an almost unlimited variety of
forms. The following are some of the most common barriers to effective communication.
1. Differing perceptions
Perception is the process by an individual receives information from the environment through the use of
his sense organs and interprets them. One of the most common sources of communication barriers is
individual variation. People who have different backgrounds of knowledge, experience, and other
demographic characteristics often perceive the same phenomenon from different perspectives.
Suppose that a new supervisor compliments an assembly line worker for his or her efficiency and high-
quality work. The supervisor genuinely appreciates the worker’s efforts and at the same time wants to
encourage the other employees to emulate his or her example. Others on the assembly line however,
may regard the worker’s being singled out for praise as a sign that he or she has been ‘buttering up to
boss” they may react by teasing or being openly hostile. The event is the same but individual’s
perspectives on it differ radically. The environment in which it occurs influences the way a
communication is perceived. Events that are considered appropriate in some circumstances are
inappropriate in others.
3. Language Differences & poor Expressions
Language differences are often closely related to differences in individual perceptions. For a message to
be properly communicated, the words used must mean the same thing to the sender and the receiver.
The same symbolic meaning must be shared. Suppose that different departments of a company receive a
memo stating that a new product is to be developed in “a short time”. To people in research and
development “a short time” might mean two or three years. To people in the finance department on the
other hand, it might be three to six months, whereas the sales department might think of it as a few
weeks. Since different meanings can be assigned to some words, great care must be taken to ensure that
the receiver gets the message that the sender intended.
Further barriers to communication may result from the use of poorly chosen words, omissions, lack of
coherence, poor organization of ideas, unnecessary jargon and so on. Communication in the
international environment becomes even more difficult because of different languages, cultures. Etc.
4. Loss by Transmission and poor Retention
In a series of transmissions from one person to the next, the message becomes less and less accurate
when a communication is being conveyed from the higher management level to the lower level step by
step. Much of it is likely to be lost in transit. Most of the time, this problem arises in oral
communication. At every successive step some of the message will drop until it reaches the last person
when it will be only a part of the original message, which might be meaningless.
This problem may arise in case of written communication as well. At every level the superior will
interpret the message in his own way and present it accordingly. Hence the original message is likely to
be destroyed. Further the meaning will change if some words are dropped, changed or misspelt. On the
other hand managers may be main causes for loss of information in organizational communication.
Consciously or unconsciously, information may be lost or distorted in downward and upward
communications.
Loss of information in upward communication
In upward communication may be lost or distorted because of mobility aspiration. Mobility aspiration is
the desire of subordinates for upward movement or promotion. It is likely that subordinates manipulate
upward messages in a way it facilitates their future promotion. Thus mobility aspiration adversely
affects the accuracy of upward messages.
Loss of information in downward communication
Generally replicating a message is difficult; there are neither perfect senders nor receivers. In addition to
this middle level managers may intentionally withhold information for several reasons.
a) Tyrannical managers – are those who do not have confidence in their subordinates. Because
responsibility is ultimate such managers may withhold key information in their drawers in order to make
their subordinates completely dependent in making decisions or taking actions. This is designed to
prevent subordinates from making important decisions.
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b) Insecure managers – are managers who do not have self-confidence. Such managers try to hide
some key information from their subordinates to prevent their subordinates from making decisions that
affect the superior’s position. Less confident managers may fear that if they release all information the
subordinates may make more sound decisions and thereby threat the superior’s position.
Some superiors may also withhold information from lack of awareness about the relevance of the
information to their subordinates
Poor retention of information is another serious problem. Most of the times there are problems in
handling and retrieving information, particularly when records management is manual. Poor records and
filing system are often major causes for loss of information in organizational communication. This
makes the necessity for repetition of the message and the use of several channels rather obvious.
Consequently, companies often use more than one channel to communicate the same message.
5. Poor Listening and Pre-mature Evaluation
There are many talkers but few listeners. Listening demands full attention and self-discipline. It also
means avoiding pre-mature evaluation of what the other person has to say. A common tendency is to
judge to approve or disapprove what is being said rather than trying to understand the speaker’s frame of
reference. Yet listening without making hasty judgments can make the whole organization more
effective and more efficient. Sympathetic listening can result in better labor- management relations and
greater understanding among managers. In short, listening with empathy can reduce some of the daily
frustrations in organized life and result in better communication.
6. Emotionality
Emotional reactions- anger, love, defensiveness, hate, jealousy, fear, embarrassment-influence how we
understand other’s messages and how we influence others with our own messages. If for example, we
are in an atmosphere where we feel threatened with loss of power or prestige we may lose the ability to
gauge the meanings of the messages we receive and will respond defensively or aggressively.
7. Inconsistent verbal and Nonverbal Communication
We think of language as the primary medium of communication, but the messages we send and receive
are strongly influenced by such nonverbal factors as body movements, clothing, our posture, gestures,
facial expression, eye movements, and body contact. Even when our message is as simple as “Good
morning”, we can covey different intents by our nonverbal communication. A busy manager who does
not want to be disturbed might respond to a subordinate’s greeting without looking up from his or her
work for example.
8. Noise, Distance and Time
Noise is any factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication. Little
communication occurs in totally noise-free environments of course. Noise is a big menace to
communication; it creates a great barrier to communication. It is a very common experience that noise
proves a big hindering factor if two persons are talking. If somehow the noise is not controlled it may
not be possible for the communicators to listen anything or make out the sense.
Distance acts as barriers in the process of communication. If the two parties are far from each other
there will be difficulty in communication. Telephone solves this difficult in many cases. But bad
weather, technical defects, breakdown etc may render the telephone useless.
The effectiveness of our communication may be reduced if our timing is not right. First, we must
consider the time of the day. Our attempts at communication must be made at the appropriate hour of
the day. A telephone call will not normally be welcome at 5 o’clock in the morning and very few of us
welcome a string of requests or enquiries on matters of high importance, the minute we arrive at our
office. Second, the time of convenience is important. In other words, we should not endeavor to
communicate with another person if he is pre-occupied with other matters: we will receive less than
proper attention. For instance if the company secretary is concentrating on arranging the agenda for a
particularly important management meeting, he is not likely to pay much attention to a request for
authority to buy a new office equipment. The request could quite well wait for a more propitious
moment. Therefore, to be effective, we must communicate at the appropriate time both by the clock and
by opportunity.
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9. The Medium and Method of Communication

A disregard of the medium of communication and the method used often create conditions that lead to a
lack of expected response or to a less than perfect understanding. In all cases the medium of the
communication and the method must be appropriate to the case in hand. Generally speaking great care
is required in this direction. Most people are very sensitive about how certain subjects are approached
and to ignore their sensitivity will often result in faulty communication.
Matters of routine nature such as the opening and closing times of the canteen may well be appropriately
conveyed by a notice on a notice board. At other times a discrete personal word is called for instance
where a staff member has started habitually to arrive late in the morning. A bold statement on a notice
board about lateness would be most inappropriate.
A more complicated situation, such as an alteration in working conditions requires even more care in the
choice of medium and method. Personal consultations with representatives of those affected are
imperative to prevent misunderstanding and to gain the cooperation of those concerned. In brief for
effective communication, the medium and method used to carry the communication must be appropriate
to the circumstances.
10. Distrust/Lack of Credibility of the Source
Credibility refers to the confidence, faith or thrust that the receiver has on the actions and/or words of
the sender. The credibility of a message is to a large extent, a function of the credibility of the sender in
the mind of the receiver. A sender’s credibility is, in turn determined by a variety of factors. In some
cases, the fact that a message comes from a manager will enhance its credibility, but it can also have the
opposite effect. In negotiations between labor and management, for example, labor often regards the
claims of managers with some suspicion. In this situation, as in others, the perceived character or
honesty of the sender is important.
Distrust can be the result of inconsistent behaviors by the superior, or it can be due to experiences in
which the subordinate was punished for honestly reporting unfavorable, but true, information to the
boss. In any case, the loss of confidence in the superior will drop the effect of the communication. What
is needed is a climate of trust, which facilitates open and honest communication.
The above being the most common barriers to effective communication there are many others. For
instance closely related to perception is the influence of attitude, which is the predisposition to act or
not, to act in a certain way, it is a mental position regarding a fact or state, clearly. If we have made up
our minds, we cannot objectively listen to what is said. Differences in status and power between the
sender and the receiver still affect communication.
In brief, often our efforts to communicate are quite successful but at other times we fail dismally. Many
factors are at works that has a bearing on our success or failure some of which we can control and some
of which are outside our control.
Other barriers may include:
- Information overload
- Unqualified assumptions
- Position awareness, etc.

2.4.Interpersonal communication and team work

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Ideas and feelings can be shared only if they are represented by symbols. Symbols are things that stand
for something else.
1. Verbal symbols – refer to the words in our language.
2. Nonverbal symbols – are anything we communicate without using words, figures, or letters. This may
include various tools such as facial expressions, gestures, body movements, etc.
Verbal Communication: Written and oral communication media have favorable and unfavorable
characteristics. Consequently, they are often used together so that the favorable qualities of each can
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complement the other. The question as to which medium of communication to use depends on the
communication the message to be transmitted, the audience (communicate) and the situation.
Written Medium (Communication): As the name implies it is the communication which is produced
in black and white. A written communication is conveyed through a letter, reports, circulars,
memoranda, notices, etc. It is a very common form of communication in most organizations and is
suitable for many situations.
Advantages of Written Medium (Communication
- It provides records for future references and can serve as a legal document.
- It provides enough time for serious thinking and as a result the message can be prepared carefully.
- It is useful when the message to be transmitted is lengthy and the receivers are large in number and
located at a distance from the sender.
- It can promote uniformity in policy and procedures.
Disadvantages of Written Medium (Communication
Written messages may create mountains of paper
As compared to oral communication it is more time and money consuming.
 There is less flexibility. Once the message has been sent it will be difficult to withdraw. Frequent
amendments and changes in written communication leads to loss of trust and prestige.
 It will be difficult to keep a matter confidential if it is considered necessary
 It may not provide an immediate feedback, consequently, it may take a long time to know whether or not
a message has been received and properly understood.
Oral Medium (Communication): In this medium of communication the two parties in communication
exchange their ideas or the message with the help of words of mouth. The message-instruction order,
directive, etc, is conveyed through spoken words. This method can be observed in a number of forms of
communication such as conferences, committee meetings, interviews, telephone conversations, face-to-
face talks etc.
Advantages of Oral Medium (Communication)
 It provides for speedy interchange with immediate feedback. People can ask questions and clarify points
at the spot and in face-to-face communication the effect can be noted.
 In most cases, it economical both in terms of time and money.
 It brings people together, eliminates the gap between the communicator and the communicate facilitates
free discussion and promotes the chance of better understanding. Furthermore, it may give a subordinate
a feeling of importance.
 It can be supported by non-verbal symbols.
Disadvantages Oral Medium (Communication)
 It does not provide any proof. There is nothing on record. One can forget completely or partially what
had been said.
 It does not provide for serious thinking as decisions are to be taken immediately.
 It is not appropriate if there is a distance between the communicator and the communicatee.
 It is not suitable if the message to be communicated is quite lengthy.
In brief, before employing a certain medium of communication, one must weight its advantages and
disadvantages and select the one that best suits the overall situation under which the communication
takes place.
Nonverbal Communication
We communicate in many different ways. What we say can be reinforced or contradicted by nonverbal
communication, such as facial expressions and body gestures. Nonverbal symbols are expected to
support the verbal. But it is not always so. For example, an autocratic manager who pounds a first on
the table while announcing that from now on participate management will be practiced certainly creates
a credibility gap. Similarly, managers who state that they have an open-door policy, but then have a
secretary carefully screen people who want to see the boss create incongruence between what they say
and the way they behave. Clearly, nonverbal communication may support or contradict verbal
communication, giving rise to the saying that actions often speak louder than words.
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Nonverbal communication is any message (information) the sender communicates without using words.
This type of communication, sometimes referred to as body language, is an important part of the
communication process. It takes place through body language (body movement) such as gesture, eye
contact, facial expression, and voice intonations as well as physical appearance. A meaning is attached
to these nonverbal symbols. The meaning of nonverbal communication is in the observer, who both
reads specific signals and interprets them in the context of the particular situation.
Channels of nonverbal communication
1) Facial expressions and eye behavior
The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing both the type and the intensity of a
person’s feelings. A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of communication. They can be used
to indicate attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction and to establish dominance.
Although the eyes and the face are usually reliable sources of meaning, people sometimes manipulate
their expressions to simulate an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true feelings.
2) Gestures and Postures
By moving their bodies people can express both specific and general messages. Many gestures, a wave
of the hand, for example, have a specific and intentional meaning such as “hello” or goodbye.” The
other types of body movemment are unintentional and express general messages. These unconscious
signals reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive or passive,
powerful or powerless.
3) Vocal characteristic/tones
The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say a lot about who you are, your
relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
4) Personal/physical/ appearance
The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity. People respond to use on the
basis of our physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us. When people think we
are capable and attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior, which in turn
affects other people’s perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style modify our appearance.
5) Use of time and space
This involves showing respect by being on time. Space also serves as a symbol of status and determines
how comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal communication serves important functions
with respect to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it, substitute for it, or accent it.
It is important for the receiver to understand the real message conveyed by the nonverbal
communication. Although verbal and nonverbal communication works together best when they are
complementary, nonverbal communication may take the place of or even contradict formal
communication or is misleading. One should look for nonverbal symbols as well as listen to the literal
meaning of a sender’s words; he should particularly be aware of contradictions of the messages. For
instance, a boss may say that he/she is free to talk to him about a grievance but he may see nonverbal
signals that suggest that this is not the time to discuss the subject. Regardless of what is being said, an
individual who frequently glances at his/her wristwatch is giving the message that he/she would prefer
to terminate the conversation. These contradictions suggest one saying that “actions speak louder-and
more accurately-than words.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Part I: True or False
1. Nonverbal symbols refer to the words in our language.
2. . Physical noise is unwanted sound created in the external environment or in transmission.
3. Decoding is the technical term for the thought processes of the sender
4. The process of communication is always smooth.
5. Listening demands full attention and self-discipline.

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Part II: Multiple Choices

1. One of the following is not barriers to effective communication?
A. Perception
B. Language differences
C. Emotional reactions
D. Consistent verbal and Nonverbal Communication
2. --------- is any factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication.
A. Noise
B. Feedback
C. Sender
D. Encoding
3. All are advantage of written communication, except
A. It can promote uniformity in policy and procedures.
B. There is less flexibility.
C. It provides records for future references and can serve as a legal document.
D. It provides enough time for serious thinking.
4. Of the following is not example of nonverbal Communication?
A. Figures
B. Facial expressions
C. Gestures
D. Body movements
5. ---------------- is a meaningful idea that people want to share with others.
A. Encoding
B. Message
C. Feedback
D. Sender

CHAPTER THREE: -BUSINESS COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

Objectives: The objectives of this lesson are:

 Understand business communication principles
 Explain Principle of Completeness
 Describe Principle of Conciseness
 Explain Principle of Concreteness
 Understand Principle of Clarity
 Elaborate Principle of Correctness
 Elaborate Principle of Consideration
 Elaborate Principle of Courtesy

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3.1. Principle of Completeness

Your business letter is “complete” when it contains all facts the reader needed for the reaction you desire.
To achieve both the specific purpose of the message and goodwill, examine your messages to make sure
that you have covered everything you intended to cover and that you provided sufficient detail for your
reader/receiver to know what you expect of him/her. Complete letter also minimizes the possible cost of
additional letter. To make your message complete, make sure the reader/receiver knows who is to do
what as well as where, when and why he/she is to do it. Furthermore to ensure completeness:
Answer all questions asked by the reader/receiver.
Answer anticipated questions the reader may have but forgot to ask.
Provide all the information necessary for the reader/receiver to make a logical decision.
Explicitly ask the reader/receiver to perform an action required, as may be necessary.
Make the subject content sufficiently clear to accomplish the business objective and
Make the feeling suitable to accomplish the human objective.
3.2. Principle of Conciseness
Conciseness is one of the most important principles of effective business writing because a wordy
message requires more time and money to type and read. Conciseness is writing a message in the
minimum possible words without sacrificing completeness and courtesy. Conciseness involves
eliminating unnecessary words. This means economy in writing saves time and money. The following are
suggestions that could help to achieve conciseness.
I. Omit unnecessary and longer expressions – Example: Use thank you” instead of "I want to thank
you", May 4” instead of “from this coming Saturday'', etc.
II. Avoid unnecessary repetition and wordy statements – Avoid unnecessary repetition even though it is
sometimes necessary for emphasis. Here are some ways to eliminate unnecessary repetition.
 Use a short name after you have mentioned the longer one once. For example, instead of the Guna
Trading company, “use the company”
 Use pronouns rather than repeating long names. For instance, instead of using “the Ethiopian
Insurance Company" again and again, uses “it.”
 Omit unnecessary articles, relative pronouns prepositions, and conjunctions Example:
Article:
The evidence we have Evidence we have
Relative pronoun:
He said that he agreed. He said he agreed.
Prepositional phrase:
Date of the policy Policy date
Conjunction:
and
Wordy Concise
During the year of 1993 during 1993
For the reason that since, because
Wordy sentence
There is no question that the increased use of advertising benefited the company.
Revised
Unquestionably, the increased advertising benefited the company.
I. Include only relevant facts with courtesy – Include only those ideas that develop the purpose of the
message. The extent of the length of a message depends on the job it is expected to perform effectively.
The major causes of irrelevancy include:
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 Failure to stick to the purpose of the message.

 Including information obvious to the reader.
 Using big words to make an impression.
 Beating around the bush - failure to come to the point.
 Being excessively polite, etc.
3.3. Principle of Concreteness
Writing concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and general. The
following guidelines help you write concretely.
ii. Use specific facts and figures – To make your message concrete, use exact facts and Figures
rather than general words Example:
Vague, general, indefinite. Concrete and convincing
Our product has won several (Name) product has won first prize
Please send your check for the please send your check for $500
Often vague, general words may have different meanings to the sender and the receiver. The list that
follows gives words, which can lead to uncertainty, misunderstanding, or confusion.
A few more short
High most slow
Large nice small
Low quick soon
Many several tall
Using plenty of examples, prefixed by phrases like “for instance,” “for example,” “such as,” also helps
make your writing concrete as well as clear.
i. Put action in your verbs – Strong verbs can activate other words and help made your sentences
definite. To write strong sentences:
 Use active rather than passive verbs, and
 Put action in your verbs instead of in nouns and infinitives.
Example: “The board of directors decided” is more explicit than “A decision has been made. “The
passive requires more words and thus, slows both the writing and reading. For instance: “Figures show”
is more concise than “It is shown by figures.
Action must also be put in verbs, not in nouns and infinitives. Notice the following examples:
Action hiding in a Noun Action in the verb
The function of this office is the This office collects accounts
collection of accounts and the and compiles statements.
compilation of statements.
Action hiding in Infinitive Action in the verb
The duty of a stenographer is A stenographer checks and
to check all incoming mail and records all incoming mail.
Torecord it.
3.4. Principle of Clarity
Clarity is the transfer of the writer’s thoughts to a reader without misunderstanding. It is the single most
important factor in communication. A misunderstood message is worse than no message at all. A
message that is not clear to a reader cannot possibly communicate the writer’s intentions. Thus, clarity is
the writer’s first responsibility. The first and most important task of the writer is to be understood. That
is, the writer wants to have his/her reader interpret the message with the same meaning as intended. The
following are some specific ways that help to make business writing clear.
i. Choose short and simple words rather than long and complicated words
Generally, short, familiar and everyday words communicate more effectively than longer and less known
words. Therefore, use short and familiar words if your reader is to understand your message.

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Example:
Complicated word simple word
Interrogate ask
Subsequent to after
Give consideration to consider
Under date of onnow
In addition, when you select words you should make sure that the words you have selected would mean
the same thing to your audience as they do to you. Words have both denotations (dictionary meaning)
and connotations (associated, personal meanings). The words inexpensive and cheap can denote the same
thing. But their connotations are different. For most people, inexpensive simply means low in cost while
cheap means poorly made or a poor value.
ii. Avoid ambiguous and equivocal words
Ambiguous words have more than one meaning and equivocal words. Whenever possible, avoid
technical jargons when you talk or write to a person who is not familiar with such words. If you must use
technical words, define them briefly and clearly, otherwise you will confuse, embarrass, or irritate your
reader, and perhaps be forced to explain later.
Example:
Technical jargon Expressions familiar to layperson
Annual premium annual payment
Assessed valuation value of property for tax purpose
Charge to your principal increase the balance of your loan
Maturity date final payment date
Per Diem daily
Sentence: Days of grace under this policy expire May 15, 1980
Revised: The extra 30 - days allowed you to pay your premium without interest end May 15, 1980
iii. Use concrete and specific words rather than general and abstract words
Specific language enables the reader to visualize the action of your letter and it creates believability.
Always give exact facts, figures, details, explanations and examples. For example, instead of soon use
March 15, 2002.
iv. Use short and simple sentences
Sentence structure is also an important consideration in achieving clarity. The easiest sentences to read
and to understand are short, simple sentences using active voice in the past, present, or future tense and
making an explicit statement. While it is true that to avoid monotony, sentence length should be varied;
short sentences are easier to read and are therefore usually clearer than long sentences. Use short
sentences for your main ideas, and place supporting information in the longer sentences. Beyond proper
length, sentences seem to grow weaker with added word.
v. Your message must be definite and straight forward
State your message explicitly rather than implicitly. Using specific and concrete words will help you
make explicit statements. Example:
Explicit: By ordering now, you will receive two issues absolutely free.
vi. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs
Clear writing depends on logical structure. A clear message requires a definite beginning, middle and
end. In addition to the logical structure, the writer also needs to provide the reader with a unified
message that moves clearly from point to point.

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A unified message has continuity of thought. Unity and structure requires planning. You should group
related ideas together and then arrange the groups into a logical sentence. Eliminate ideas that do not
pertain to either your subject content or your feeling content. So that your reader will always know
where your message has been and where it is going as you move from idea to idea, provide your reader
with a clear, specific reference to the preceding idea or anticipate your next idea with an explicit
statement of direction. As a result your statement (writing) should aim for unity and coherence.
In a sentence, unity means having one idea and other ideas closely related to it. For instance, the manager
of the firm-X is Abraha and Alemu won a gold medal in the marathon, game. These two ideas do not
relate; the second idea is irrelevant to the first ideas
Sentences and paragraphs should have logical sequence showing the reader the relationship between
them. The use of linking words is important in this case. The principal ways of establishing the unity,
coherence and transition required for clarity are given as follows:
vii. Include visual Aids, when desirable
Visual aids- such as headings, tabulations, itemizations, pictures, and charts are definite aids to clarity
and easy reading.
Self-test exercise 4
1. ----------- is the transfer of the writer’s thoughts to a reader without misunderstanding.
2. The easiest sentences to ------ and ------ are short, simple sentences using active voice in the past,
present, or future tense and making an explicit statement.
Answer for Self-test exercise 4
1. Clarity
2. read and to understand
3.5. Principle of Correctness
Presenting a message correctly helps you to avoid the risk of miscommunication. Mistakes cause
misunderstanding and they can destruct the recipients from concentrating on the intended message.
Besides, errors can affect the credibility of the sender and the message. As a principle of effective writing
the broad term correctness refers to:
 Correct figures, accurate statements, facts and explicit identification of assumptions an opinion.
It is obvious that without correct figures and statements, accurate communication is impossible.
 Correct spelling, grammar, mechanics, and language usage. Misspelled words, faulty
punctuation, and awkward constructions will be barriers to communication. Your ability to use language
correctly and to write a message free from superficial errors is a nonverbal message that tells your
readers that you are an intelligent, careful person who cares enough about them to pay attention to the
details of your message. Because your letters, memos, and reports provide a lasting record of your
abilities to think, write and communicate about business matters, you should take the time to ensure
correctness since communication errors will undermine your business effectiveness. Thus, as a writer of
a business letter, you should apply the following guidelines in your communication.
i. Use correct level of language, spelling, and grammar and mechanics.
 Use short, well-known, and conversational words.
 Spelling - misspelled words are the single most common error in business letters.
 Punctuation - Review the rules for using commas, semicolons, and quotation marks.
 Use colon before a list of items, Example: Use the first five English alphabets: A, B, C, D, and E.
 Use commas to separate items in a series. Use quotation- Example. For direct quotations when
said, “I will go to USA”
Subject - verb agreement. Subjects and verbs must agree in number and in person.
Example: The manager (singular) is (singular) quite young.
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Pronoun- antecedent agreement – Pronouns and their antecedents must agree in person, number and
gender.
Example: Abraham (singular, masculine, third person) is pushing his (singular, masculine, third person)
product.
Tense progression. Use the simple tenses (past, present, and future) whenever possible. Make sure that
the verbs used for each event accurately depict the time appropriate for that event.
Parallel construction – Like ideas should be expressed in like grammatical structures. Pay particular
attention to series, lists, appositives, and ideas proceeded by correlative conjunctions (either--- or,
neither--- nor, not only--- but also). Example:
 He should either quit his job or learn to operate the machine.
 Neither his supervisor nor his assistant filed the paper.
The manager prepared not only the reports but also the tapes.
Correct placement of modifiers – Place modifiers close to the word or idea that requires the modifier.
Example:
Dangling: by working hard, the report will be finished soon.
Correct: by working hard, I will finish the report soon.
Misplaced: I know a man who sells filing cabinet named smith.
Correct: I know a man named smith who sells filling cabinets.
Finally, you remember to proofread, when correspondence has your nonce on it,
it represents the best work you are able to do. If your secretary can’t type a decent letter or memo, that is
still your responsibility, and your business associates will judge you rather than your secretary, by the
material you sign.
i. Ensure that the facts, figures and words used are accurate:
One erroneous digit can make a difference of thousands of money. Even small errors of a few cents can
be annoying to customers and undermine goodwill. To be sure of the accuracy of your facts, you should
verify all statements before writing and again before you sign approve the message. You also need to be
up-to-date on laws that affect your organization.
Guessing or assuming that you are right can be costly. Just because a certain fact was true about a
customer last year- or even last month- does not assure it is true now. You should also realize that, like
most things in life, language is alive and ever changing. This is to say that language is in a continuous
development. New words emerge; old words die. The change in words may result confusion in usage.

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3.6Principle of Consideration
The relationship between of the message, the sender and the receiver profoundly affects communication
effectiveness. Consideration means that preparingmessage with the recipient in mind. This includes
trying to put oneself in his/her place. It involves visualizing and evaluating the recipient's situation, the
desires, problems, circumstances, emotions and probable reactions to one's request so as to adjust the
message from the recipient's point of view. This includes taking into account the language and tone of
your message. This thoughtful of consideration is also called “you - attitude,” empathy, the human
touch, and understanding of human nature. To achieve consideration, it is necessary to apply the
following.
I. Focus on “you” instead of “I” and “we”
Readers are usually more concerned about themselves than about the writer or the company they
represent. They are more likely to read the writer's message when they see their name and the pronoun
“you” rather than “I, We, Us.”
Usually it is desirable to get the reader into the first paragraph. If psychologically desirable, begin with
“you” or “your,” and keep your reader in the message (tactfully) until you finish. The opposite of your –
attitude is the we-attitude, in which the writer views every matter from his/her own (or organization’s)
standpoint rather than from the reader’s.
We – attitude you - attitude
I want to send my Congratulations to you on
Congratulations……. You’re …
Study the following example:
We – attitude: May I take this opportunity to express my thanks for the account you recently opened
with our store.
We are pleased to furnish a wide variety of products for the home or individual
You – attitude: Thank you for the account you recently opened at DASHEN’S.
Serving you with your needs for clothing and a home furnishing is a pleasure.
As the foregoing example illustrates, a letter is likely to have better you – attitude when it contains more
“you’d” than “I’s.” However, in two kinds of situations it is advisable not to use “you.”
 When the reader has made a mistake:
Don't say you failed to enclose your check in the envelope.
Say the envelope we received did not have your check in it.
 When the reader has expressed an opinion different from your own.
Don't say you are entirely wrong in your attitude.
Say the proposed plan has three aspects which are extremely important and which we need to explain
now.
II. Shows interest in the reader
Whenever possible and true, show how readers will benefit from whatever the message asks or
announces. They will be more likely to react favorably and do what you suggest if you show that benefits
be worth the effort and cost. For instance, reader-benefits are desirable in job applications, favor requests,
and announcements to your customers, prospective buyers, stockholders and employees. If your company
provides employee benefits such as, health insurance and various retirement plans-management should
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make every effort to assure that all employees understand and appreciate those benefits. To inform
employees effectively, management can use such media as memos, employee manuals, bulletins reports,
etc.
III. Emphasize on pleasant & positive facts. Here, reader is required to accent the positive. This means
-Stressing what can be done instead of what cannot be done and
-Focusing on ideas your reader can view favorably.
The reader wants to know what the writer can do for him/her. For most people negative words like no,
won’t, cannot, never, impossible trigger unpleasant emotional reactions. By making clear what you can
or will do, you (by implication) often make clear what you cannot do, without using a single negative
word. Example:
Negative-Unpleasant Positive-Pleasant
It is impossible to open an As soon as your signature card
account for you today. reaches us, we will gladly open an account.
When a customer closes an account, try to begin your follow-up letter to the former customer with a
favorable positive paragraph. A negative opening emphasizes ideas you would rather not have the reader
think about.
IV. Be honest
To be truly considerate, apply integrity - high moral standards, personal honor, truthfulness, sincerity-to
your messages. Integrity is always indispensable. Without it business communications would prove
worthless and our confidence in people would be shattered. Since you are an agent of your company,
always remember that your messages help build the company’s image. And to make this image one of
integrity requires consistently fair treatment of customers and to be honest and sincere for them. For
example, though the following sentence sounds “you” centered, the manager who wrote it was not
honest or insincere. His action is stated in parentheses.
“Your request will be given our careful attention, and we assure you our objective is to be fair.”(This
writer merely threw the case into a file folder, and told his secretary that he/she had no intention of
working on it or assigning anyone else to do so, he hoped that after a long wait the customer would
forget.)
Consideration involves the golden rule - showing to others that the same fairness and honesty
We expect for ourselves. Remember both your own integrity and that of your company are revealed in
the business message you write.
3.7. Principle of Courtesy
Courteous message helps to strengthen present business friendship, as well as make new friends.
Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertions of
“pleases” and “thank-yours”. To be courteous, the communicator should follow the following
suggestions regarding tone and promptness of messages.
Be sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful, and Appreciative
A truly courteous person sincerely likes people, is thoughtful of their feelings, and tries honestly to help
them. The courteous communicator tries to make messages tactful and shows thoughtful appreciation in
special messages as well as in every day communication.
Tactless Tactful.
Your letter is not clear at all: If I understand your letter

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I can’t understand it. Correctly…..

Apparently you have already As mentioned in my May 15
Forgotten what I wrote you letter (or memo) to you,
Two weeks ago.
Words that convey cordial and courteous messages in congratulations and appreciation (to persons both
inside and outside the organization) help build goodwill. Much money is spent on advertising to attract
new customers and to keep desirable old customers. While advertising may bring buyers into the front
door of your firm, discourteous letters can drive customers out the back door. Remember, since
customers indirectly help pay your salary; you should let them know you appreciate their orders,
payments and inquiries.
Omit Expressions that Irritate, Hurt, or Belittle
The thought-full business writer should avoid expressions that might offend the reader. Therefore, in
order to keep your letter courteous you have to avoid:
Irritating expressions such as “contrary to your inference” I do not agree with you”
Belittling statements - Talking undermining a reader is another form of discourtesy that can have a
profoundly unfavorable effect.
Grant and apologize Good-naturedly
Whenever you have occasion to comply with a customer’s request, begin your letter with the best news
first and inject a courteous, ungrudging tone. Notice the difference in tone of the following two
paragraphs
Grudging
Your request causes a great deal of extra paper work to change monthly payments. However, in
compliance with your request, we…
Good-natured
As you requested, we will reduce the monthly interest and principal payments called for in your note
to….
If a request has caused you extra work, you may tactfully tell the customer somewhere in the letter - but
not the first paragraph.
Occasionally you may get a “nasty” letter from a customer, who is wrong in his/her accusations. A
courteous reply can lead not only to an apology from the customer but also future staunch loyalty as a
boaster for your organization.
Answer your mail promptly
For courtesy as well as better results one should answer a business inquiry promptly. If you need time to
gather information, or have a stack of other urgent work, before you can answer a request, send a short
note like the following:
I will gladly send you the information you need. It may take a few days to assemble the facts. You will
hear from me by….
Planning in Communication
Your careful planning of the message is most important for effective communication since your goal is
to gain desired reaction or action from the recipient. Thus, think and plan before you communicate.
This means, to determine what points to include in your message, and to determine how to arrange those
points for greatest effectiveness. You need to analyze the communication context by asking yourself:
what is the purpose of the message? What is the reader’s point of view? And what is necessary to

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achieve the principles of effective communication? Planning in communication requires applying the
following steps:
Understand the purpose of the message
Determine the receiver of your message and what you want to achieve. Your first step is to determine
what you want to achieve out of the message. Every message has two categories of purposes or
objectives.
Business objective- establishes the subject content. Your business objective is to obtain the information
that will help your dealer help you. Example: informing your reader that you are offering a new product
or service or persuading him/her to purchase the new product or service or informing him/her the delay
of the shipment. You may also inquire the availability of sufficient goods.
Human objective - establishes the feeling content. Your human objective is to establish empathy with
the reader so that a spirit of cooperation will prevail. This part of purpose is important to build
goodwill. Thus, be sure to keep, both your business purpose (specific) and human purpose (general), in
mind as you plan every message.
Visualize your reader
Understand your reader and your reader’s point of view. Your reader can be a business or professional
person, superior, colleague or subordinate; man or woman; young, middle aged, or elderly new or
longtime customer; and so on. The different people with whom you are communicating will not have the
same point of view. Visualizing that there is an individual difference adjust your message accordingly.
Write your message with the individual reader in mind
Choose the ideas that the message is to include
Identifying the purpose and the ideas that the purpose is to include is helpful to avoid irrelevant ideas
and overall wordiness. The ideas you will include in the writing depend upon the type of message you
are considering.
Get all the facts to support your ideas
Once you have determined the ideas, you must ensure that you have the necessary figures, facts and
quotations to support these ides. Be sure you know your company policy, procedures and product
details if this message requires them.
Organize your ideas/thoughts
Before you write your message, outline your ideas in a sequence/logical order so that the flow of ideas
can be smooth.
Write, revise, and proofread
Write and revise your message carefully. No matter your writing is routine short communication or
complex long communication you must read your draft objectively, from the viewpoint of your reader.
Make sure that your message meets all principles of effective business writing. Finally, after your
message is typewritten (handwritten) it needs careful proofreading. Proofreading is essential to correct
any possible error; so that your message will reflect favorably on you and your business.
Self-check Tables for students
If you understand the following topics put a (√) mark in the yes boxes or put the same in the no boxes if
you do not and then for the topics you tick no boxes read the topics again.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Part I: True or False
1. The thought-full business writer should not avoid expressions that might offend the reader.
2. Courteous message helps to strengthen present business friendship, as well as make new friends.
3. Consideration means that preparing a message with the recipient in mind.
4. Guessing or assuming that you are right can be cheaply.

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5. Presenting a message correctly helps you to avoid the risk of miscommunication.

Part II: Multiple Choices
1. Which one of the following word is complicated word?
A. Interrogate
B. Ask
C. Consider
D. Now
2. Which one of the following is a characteristic of completeness?
A. Answer anticipated questions the reader may have but forgot to ask.
B. Make the feeling suitable to accomplish the human objective.
C. Explicitly ask the reader/receiver to perform an action required, as may be necessary.
D. Provide all the information necessary for the reader/receiver to make a logical decision.
E. All
3. ---------------- is writing a message in the minimum possible words without sacrificing
completeness and courtesy.
A. Conciseness
B. Correctness
C. Consideration
D. Courtesy
4. Which one of the following is not principle of Conciseness?
A. Do not omit unnecessary and longer expressions
B. Avoid unnecessary repetition and wordy statements
C. Omit unnecessary articles, relative pronouns prepositions, and conjunctions
D. Use a short name after you have mentioned the longer one once.
5. Which one of the following is not the major cause of irrelevancy?
A. Failure to stick to the purpose of the message.
B. Including information obvious to the reader.
C. Being excessively polite
D. Beating around the bush
E. All
F. None of the answer

CHAPTER FOUR: -TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

Learning Objective: At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
 Understand Communication Channels and Functions.
 Explain Formal flow of Communication
 Understand Informal Communication
 Explain Importance of the grapevine
 Recognize External Communication

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4.1 Internal and External communication

An organization is greatly affected by its external environment. Therefore, inorder to exist, any
organization has to adjust its activities in accordance with external influences. Communications to
persons outside the company-customers, inquirers, suppliers and the public- can have a far-reaching
effect on the reputation and ultimate success of the organization. The right letter, telephone call, or
personal conversation can win back a disgruntled customer, create a desire for a firm’s product or
service, can negotiate a profitable sale, help an inquirer who is a potential customer, and in general
create goodwill.
Reputable organizations are also seriously concerned about enhancing their public image through various
communications. Among these communications are public speeches by their executives, tactful replies
to comments and criticisms from consumer groups, free informative pamphlets, interviews with news
media. All these forms of communication are transmitted with a greater emphasis on truthfulness.
Thus, employees who communicate effectively can contribute in a variety of ways to the lifeblood of
their organization. Successful messages eliminate unnecessary additional correspondence save time and
expense, build favorable impressions enhance goodwill, and help increase company profits.
Therefore, in brief, effective internal communication integrates and facilitates the managerial functions at
all levels; and effective external communication relates and integrates an enterprise successfully to its
external environment.
Communication Channels and Functions
As we have seen communication, both oral and written is a predominant form of organizational behavior.
People in today’s organizations spend a great deal of time communicating; the higher they go in the
organizational hierarchy, the more time communication consumes. However, as Peter Drucker points
out, all is not well; “We have more attempts at communications today . . . yet communications has
proven as elusive as the unicorn. The noise level has gone up so fast that no one can really listen
anymore to all that babble about communications. But there is clearly less and less communicating. The
communications gap within institutions and between groups in society has been widening steadily to the
point where it threatens to become an unbridgeable gulf of total misunderstanding.” In short, while
people in organizations today spend a lot of time engaged in communication-related activity, they are
not very successful in communicating.
Generally, we have found five basic causes of communication failure.
1. Communication in most organizations is activity-oriented, not results-oriented.
When consulting with hospitals for example, it is our practice to ask the hospital administrator to show us
the hospital’s employee handbook. Then we ask him or her, “Do you feel this is a good employee
handbook? Typically, their answer will be “yes” followed by such reasons as: It has won national
awards for design and layout; it costs us a lot of money to produce; my picture is on the inside cover;
consultants helped us to develop it, and so on. When we then ask, “But does it do what is it supposed to
do?” We typically receive a puzzled look and a long silence in response. Communication is a tool
designed to produce some effect upon its receiver. Too many organizations, however, view
communication as something that “ought to be done” losing sight of the impact their communications
should have.
2. Communication often is one-way
Management frequently assumes that, as long as they are sending messages regularly to the rest of the
organization, they are communicating. They therefore engage exclusively in “downward”
communication, receiving little or no feedback from lower levels of the organizations as a result they
often do not know if their downward messages were received, understood, believed, or approved of by
employees, and they cannot adjust future messages to employees’ needs or characteristics. In order to
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be effective, communication in organizations must flow not only downward, but upward and laterally as
well.
3. The impact of communication is not measured
This problem is related to the preceding one. In many organizations, management receives information
feedback. However, no systematic attempt is made to measure the impact of communication in terms of
the objectives or results the communication was supposed to achieve. If, for example, the employee
handbook is designed to inform employees about company benefit programs, actual measures should be
taken to determine how much information employees get and retain about benefit plans by reading that
handbook. In effect, management must clearly define the results they want their communication
systems to achieve, and then regularly measure the extent to which those results have been produced.
4. Communications are not responsive to employee needs
When defining the objectives of their communication systems, management should first ask employees
what information they want or need. Then they can tailor downward messages to meet those needs.
Rarely, for example, do companies ask new employees what information they would like to receive in
the new employee orientation meetings; rather, they assume that the information they are providing is
exactly what the employees’ need. When we have interviewed incoming employees about their
concerns and desires, we find an entire body of information is needed that company orientation
programs do not provide.
5. The people who implement communication systems lack the necessary communication skills
Department meetings cannot be effective if the department heads conducting them lack meeting
leadership skills. Employment interviews do not select the best available candidates if the interviewers
are unskilled. Communication systems and opportunities are not enough; the people who use those
systems must have skills as communicators. As the preceding discussion indicates, communication in
organizations has two basic elements; communication systems (the meetings, publications,
conversations and so on in which messages are transmitted), and communication skills of the people
participating in those communication systems.
Communication Functions
Within each organizational setting, communication performs a variety of functions. One function that
occupies a central role within all organizational systems is information exchange.
Information Exchange
In the broad sense, any organization that does not exchange information with its environment will die.
The organization both effects change in its environment and responds to change in order to survive. Such
changes would not be possible without the possession of considerable information on which to base
intelligent behavior. Thus, the exchange of information serves the basic function of organizational
maintenance.
Idea and attitude imposition
From the time we enter an organization, we are bombarded with ideas, information, and attitudes whose
purpose is to effect some change in us. Whenever we join an organization, we immediately encounter
some of the more common forms of idea and attitude imposition. We may be told succinctly and directly
how to function in our daily jobs and how those jobs fit into the overall organizational plan. At a more
subtle level, our initiation may involve a strategic indoctrination aimed at encouraging us to conform to
the values, standards, and needs of the organization. Schein refers to this latter process as
“organizational socialization.” Although some socialization is probably inevitable and in some sense

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beneficial, Schein maintains that what organizations really need are creative people who accept crucial
organizational values, but who are richly diversified in other significant respects. Most healthy
companies are filled with professionals who are united in their dedication to the organization’s goals of
high-quality products, employee satisfaction, and productivity. Even so their ideas about what precisely
constitutes quality, how to keep workers happy, and how to achieve maximum productivity are probably
quite different. Although organizations can command a great of conformity, only through a process of
mutual organizational and individual influence is innovation and growth likely to occur in the long run.
Evaluation
A third major communication function is evaluation. When we evaluate, we process, interpret, and judge.
Each of us is evaluated before entering the organization through applications and employment interview,
and the notion of evaluation is really inherent in the organization’s hierarchy. Supervisors evaluate their
subordinates just as higher executive judge lower level supervisors. Worker evaluation sheets, memos,
organizational progress reports, interviews, and personal and small group conferences are a few
examples of common organizational evaluation procedures.
Soliciting Feedback
A fourth function of communication is soliciting feedback. Historically, several factors have impeded
feedback in organizations. Generally some employees simply are not interested in communicating to
management or participating in decision making; others are afraid to communicate (fearing reprisals
from a management or ostracism by their peers); still others are unaware that management expects them
to communicate; and some simply believe that management has no interest in their thoughts and
concerns or that management will not respond to them.
Taken together, the communication functions we have outlined influence the effectiveness and efficiency
of the organization. The amount, clarity, and appropriateness of information exchanged, the ability of
the organization to socialize and influence its members, the impact of evaluations, and the success of
attempts to solicit feedback all determine the characteristics, and ultimately the success, of a particular
organization. In the next section, we will review some of the channels that organizations use to achieve
these functions.
4.2.Formal flow of Communication
Communication in organizations takes two forms: “formal” and Informal”. Formal communication is
that which follows prescribed channels of communication throughout the organization-typically the
chain of command. It follows the official channels of communication prescribed in the organization
structure. Informal communication generally is considered to be any interaction that does not follow
official channels of communication.
Formal communication is the official patterns of communication that are designed, approved, and
recognized by the management of the organization. It is an integral part of the organization structure.
Organizational chart can be regarded as anatomical drawing of the official channels (paths) through
which official messages travel. Formal communication is thus the official chains that determine the
flow and direction of official messages among individuals or divisions in an organization. Formal
channels of communication provide for the structured flow of primarily vertical communication (upward
and downward) and secondarily crosswise (horizontal and diagonal) communication.
4.2.1. Downward Communication
Messages flowing upper from organizational levels to lower organizational levels constitute downward
communication. Downward communication has three main objectives.
i) To provide directives to subordinates: Through downward communication, organizations;
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 assign goals and explain the reason for assignment

 direct the activities of employees
 instruct them in proper behaviors and work methods
 persuade them to adopt certain attitudes and ideas
 evaluate their performance on the job
 solicit upward communication, and
 provide entertainment
ii) To indoctrinate company objectives, strategies, programs, policies and procedures.
iii) iii) Appraise subordinates’ performance/performance feedback
Performance of subordinates must be evaluated continuously or periodically. The performance result
must also be communicated to the subordinates so as to help them know whether they are meeting their
goals or not. Positive evaluations contribute in raising the morale of workers and thereby increase their
productivity. Carefully communicated low evaluations also help the subordinates to overcome their
shortcomings and take corrective measures.
The most commonly used downward communication methods are the following:
1. Employee hand books- used to provide basic information about the organization, pay policies,
and benefit programs, work rules, and working facilities.
2. Job descriptions and work procedures-used to inform an individual what is expected of him
and his work unit form the organization.
3. Newsletters- are periodical publication about the news of the organization and other related
activities.
4. Letters and memoranda
5. Employment interview-used to promote good relations with prospective employee.
6. Performance appraisals- conducted as a private meeting between a superior and his
subordinate.
7. Disciplinary interviews- conducted by managers and superiors when employees violate the
rules and regulations of the organization.
8. Departmental or unit meetings- often called by supervisors used to discuss with subordinate
about
 Current events in the company
 Future plans of the company
 Progress reports, (evaluation reports)
9. New employee orientation programs-used to give employees detailed information about their
jobs and the environment at which they will work. This helps employees to feel welcome in the
organization and learn about matters that directly affect them; and adapt to the new environment and
become effective.
Limitations of Downward Communication
a. Communication often is not received: Employees often do not read the announcements, or they
ignore the bulletins that are posted and overlook the posters that announce current events. Supervisors
and managers choose not to conduct departmental meetings, or neglect to conduct the disciplinary or
appraisal interviews that are their responsibility.
b. Communication occurs too frequently: and after a time employees become saturated and simply
stop paying attention.
c. Distortion or filtering: The sheer number of people involved makes it likely that:
- facts will be distorted
- details will be filtered out
- the meaning of the message will be changed
d. Built in resistance:
Downward communication is characterized by some degree of authoritarianism. Subordinators are
expected to receive the message at its face value, i.e. without questioning the validity, reliability and
appropriateness of the message.
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Ways of Improving Downward Communication

 The message must be clearly understood by the subordinate
 The employee has to believe the order or instruction is consistent with the organization goal.
 The subordinate must be able to comply with the order mentally and physically. Orders and
instructions have to be reasonable enough to reflect the capacity of the subordinate with due regard to
time.
4.2.2.Upward Communication
Upward communication constitutes the flow of information from subordinates to supervisors. It
involves information about
 Subordinates performance
 Feedback on organization a policies and practices
 Problem solving suggestions opinions, complaints etc.
Importance
i) Providing feedback
Managerial function is incomplete without feedback.
Managers ascertain whether:
 the policies are being followed
 the rules are being strictly respected
 The directives are properly carried out by means of feedback.
ii) Outlet for pent-up emotions
Upward communication provides employees with the opportunity to channel their problems, complains,
and grievances to superiors. This reduces frustration and enables employees develop positive attitude.
iii) Providing constructive suggestions
Every member of an organization has a capacity to contribute ideas or suggestions that can promote the
welfare of the organization. Every employee is endowed with some creative capacity and wise
managers utilize the creative capacity of their subordinates. When subordinates constructive
suggestions are accepted and implemented, they feel encouraged and motivated because they believe are
participating in decision making. This also enables them to identify themselves with the management
and the organization.
iv) Easier introduction of new schemes
Effective upward communication minimizes resistance to changes and makes them exert extra efforts to
make the new schemes successful.
v) Greater harmony between superiors and subordinates

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Methods of Upward Communication

The most common methods of upward communication are the following:
i) Employee opinion surveys
These are written questionnaires asking employees to report about their attitudes and feelings toward all
elements of their working lives. Responses are anonymous and employees are free to express their
attitudes without fear of reprisal.
ii) Letters and reports
iii) Suggestion and complaints boxes- often effective at the beginning and their novelty quickly
wear off.
iv) Open door policies
This allows employees to stop by any manager’s office with concern, suggestion, or complaint whenever
they feel the need. Practically, however, many managers may not have either time or willingness to
listen to the ideas of subordinates and other lower level people. Moreover, entering managers’ offices is
often intimidating.
v) Open floor policies/management by walking
This is an upward communication method through which management members’ walk around work
areas talking informally with employees individually or in-group. This method is more effective
because employees are likely to say what is in their minds when they are at work.
v) Departmental meetings- employees are freer to report discuss and evaluate all elements of their
work lives than using written reports.
vi) vii) Social gatherings
vii) Social gathering creates favorable atmosphere for informal upward communication through
employees throw away their timidity and fear and feel free to talk to superiors about organizational and
personal problems.
Limitations of Upward Communication
i) Upward communication is subject to substantial distortion -Employees are reluctant to
communicate negative information to superiors. Subordinates make every attempt to send messages that
please management and this leads to exaggerated information.
ii) By passing some organizational levels-When subordinates by pass their immediate superiors,
the possible result can be:
 Hostility between a subordinate and his/her immediate superior
 Information overload to top management resulting in distrust for lack of response
 Violation of the chain of command
Many superiors discourage upward communication because of Negligence, lack of confidence, or
because they claim to be busy.
4.2.3 Horizontal Communication
Horizontal or lateral communication is communication between people or work units at the same level
of organizational hierarchy. It is designed to save time and facilitate control. Strict adherence to the
chain of command might result in the following problems.
By the time the communication process in complete through the scalar chain, the information may be
useless.
The communication must pass through various levels aggravating screening and distortion.
The communications will unnecessarily costly in terms of time and money.

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4.2.4. Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication takes place between work units or people at different levels of organizational
hierarchy but without having direct reporting relationship. It is designed to support the vertical and
horizontal communication systems.
Conclusion
The vertical, horizontal, and diagonal communication constitutes the internal communication. Effective
internal communication helps in decreasing absenteeism, grievance, turnover; and increasing job
satisfaction, belongingness, productivity, and profit.
In general effective internal communication integrates and puts into action the management functions. It
is needed to:
 Establish and disseminate goals and develop plans for their accomplishment.
 Organize human and non-human resources in most efficient and effective way.
 Select, develop, and appraise organizational members.
 Lead, motivate, and create conducive climate at which employees are made to contribute to
organizational goals.
 Evaluate performance and take proper measures to remedy deviations from plans.
4.3. Informal Communication – The Grapevine
People talk about job related or unrelated information. They talk about promotions, salary increment,
demotions, administrative policies and decisions. They also talk about local and international affairs.
They talk such situations in the form of rumors, gossips, daily friendly chat etc. This all travel through
informal networks that often develop through incidents of spatial arrangement, similarity of personalities
or compatibilities of personal skills. Informal communication is thus, ones, aspect of organizational
communication that is not designed and recognized by management.
Since every communication cannot be programmed, grapevine is created and exists out of the will of
management. It arises out of the need for social interaction between people in the organization. Of
course what they share at an informal level will affect their ability to communicate about their jobs and
their attitude towards their work and the organization.
Most employees are involved in several networks at the same time; some grow from political ties, other
from technical interests and still others from social preferences. Grapevine is thus made up of several
information networks that overlap and interest at a number of points-that is some well-informed
individuals are likely to belong to more than one informal networks. It shows admirable disregard for
rank and authority. The situations that employees may informally discuss in the form of rumors and
gossips may distort the accuracy of the information and may even go against the interest of the
organization, but managers cannot avoid it because it is not created by management.
Four Informal Communication configurations;
Single strand - A B C D E
Gossip - a person with the information passes it to every other individual in the chain
A
F
B C D E

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Random - Probability chain - each person passes on information at random, without particular regard
for who the receiver is. And the receivers use the same approach in their communication efforts.
D
C E

B F

A G
I H
Cluster chain - information is passed on selectively: the individual deliberately tells some people and
does not tell others. Some of those getting the information pass it onto others while the remainder does
not. The result is that handful of people often account for all of the information that is passed along this
information chain.
A

B D
F
E C M

G I J
Importance of the grapevine
i) It is used by employees as a safety value
Employees use the grapevine as a way of expressing their confined emotions use releasing their
anxieties. When people feel powerless to direct their destinies, the grapevine is a way of letting our
confined emotions thereby reducing frustration.
ii) The grapevine promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion.
People have inborn interest to interact and they satisfy their needs for friendliness, love and acceptance
by their peers.
iii) Provides feedback to management
It enables managers to know the real responses of employees towards a policy or other parts of the
organization from the grapevine leaders informally than formal reports from supervisors.
The most negative attribute of the grapevine, however, is that it serves as a network for rumors that
cannot be supported by facts. Rumors can travel like wild fire across the boundary of an organization
thereby spoiling the public image of the organization. Besides often transmits incomplete information
resulting in possible misunderstanding, confusion and wrong action.
Ways of effectively utilizing the grapevine

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Grapevine is a natural and enviable result of people working together in groups. It cannot be avoided
because the more one tries to block the more force it will have. Therefore the following are some of the
ways through which the grapevine can be utilized effectively for organizational purposes.
 Managers should admit its existence and try to feed the leaders or the grapevine accurate
information for fast dissemination and minimize rumors that adversely affect the organizations
productivity and public image.
 The grapevine should be used to diagnose the feelings and attitudes of employees so that
management policies, styles and other practices would be adjusted profitably according to the common
interest.
 Encouraging informal organizations to build team work wand mutual understanding so that false
rumors can be prevented before they prove to be harmful and disastrous.
4.4 Nonverbal Communication
We communicate in many different ways. What we say can be reinforced or contradicted by nonverbal
communication, such as facial expressions and body gestures. Nonverbal symbols are expected to
support the verbal. But it is not always so. For example, an autocratic manager who pounds a first on
the table while announcing that from now on participate management will be practiced certainly creates
a credibility gap. Similarly, managers who state that they have an open-door policy, but then have a
secretary carefully screen people who want to see the boss create incongruence between what they say
and the way they behave. Clearly, nonverbal communication may support or contradict verbal
communication, giving rise to the saying that actions often speak louder than words.
Nonverbal communication is any message (information) the sender communicates without using words.
This type of communication, sometimes referred to as body language, is an important part of the
communication process. It takes place through body language (body movement) such as gesture, eye
contact, facial expression, and voice intonations as well as physical appearance. A meaning is attached
to these nonverbal symbols. The meaning of nonverbal communication is in the observer, who both
reads specific signals and interprets them in the context of the particular situation.
Channels of nonverbal communication
 Facial expressions and eye behavior
The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing both the type and the intensity of a
person’s feelings. A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of communication. They can be used
to indicate attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction and to establish dominance.
Although the eyes and the face are usually reliable sources of meaning, people sometimes manipulate
their expressions to simulate an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true feelings.
 Gestures and Postures
By moving their bodies people can express both specific and general messages. Many gestures, a wave
of the hand, for example, have a specific and intentional meaning such as “hello” or goodbye.” The
other types of body movemment are unintentional and express general messages. These unconscious
signals reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive or passive,
powerful or powerless.
 Vocal characteristic/tones
The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say a lot about who you are, your
relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
 Personal/physical/ appearance
The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity. People respond to use on the
basis of our physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us. When people think we
are capable and attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior, which in turn
affects other people’s perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style modify our appearance.
 Use of time and space

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This involves showing respect by being on time. Space also serves as a symbol of status and determines
how comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal communication serves important functions
with respect to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it, substitute for it, or accent it.

Self-assessment tests
Part I: True/False
1. Formal communication is that which follows prescribed channels of communication throughout the
organization-typically the chain of command.
2. Messages flowing upper from organizational levels to lower organizational levels constitute upward
communication.
3. Upward communication constitutes the flow of information from subordinates to supervisors.
4. Horizontal or lateral communication is communication between people or work units at the
different level of organizational hierarchy.
5. Gossip refers a person with the information passes it to every other individual in the chain.
Part II: Multiple Choices
1. What is Importance of the grapevine?
A. It is used by employees as a safety value
B. Provides feedback to management
C. The grapevine promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion.
D. All
2. A type of formal communication that flows between persons of equal status in the
organization is A. Downward communication B. Upward communication C. Vertical
communication D. Horizontal communication
3. Which one of the following is a not basic cause of communication failure?
A. Communication in most organizations is results-oriented.
B. Communication often is one-way
C. The impact of communication is not measured
D. Communications are not responsive to employee needs
4. Which one of the following is Grapevine idea?
A. They talk such situations in the form of rumors
B. Daily friendly chat
C. Talk about local and international affairs
D. All
5. What is the most common method of upward communication?
A. Employee opinion surveys
B. Letters and reports
C. Suggestion and complaints boxes
D. Open door policies
E. All

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CHAPTER FIVE: -PUBLIC RELATION

Objectives: After reading this lesson, the students will be able to:
 Understand public relations.
 Explain function of public relations.
 Identify elements of public relations.
 Explain the components and elements of public relations.
 Understand public relations process.
 Understand media relations.
5.1. DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
“Public Relation is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual
understanding between on organization and its publics.”
Institute of Public Relations, USA
“Public Relations are the attempt by information, persuasion and adjustment to engineer public support
for an activity, cause, movement or institution.”
Edward L. Bernays
“Public Relations are a combination of philosophy, sociology, economics, language, psychology,
journalism, communication and other knowledge’s into a system of human understanding."
Herbert M. Baus
“Merely human decency which flows from a good heart.”
Charles Plackard
“Everything involved in achieving a favorable opinion."
George F. Meredith
Former President of the American Pubic Relation Association
“The Management function which gives the same organized and careful attention to the asset of
goodwill as is given to any other major asset of business.”
John W. Hill
"Public Relations is distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines of
communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an organization and its publics;
involves the management of problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive
to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest;
helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to
help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as its principal tools."
Rex F. Harlow
FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
 Public Relations are establishing the relationship among the two groups (organization and
public).
 Art or Science of developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill.
 It analyses the public perception & attitude, identifies the organization policy with public interest
and then executes the programs for communication with the public.
ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
 A planned effort or management function.
 The relationship between an organization and its publics
 Evaluation of public attitudes and opinions.
 An organization’s policies, procedures and actions as they relate to said organization’s publics.
 Steps taken to ensure that said policies, procedures and actions are in the public interest and
socially responsible.
 Execution of an action and or communication program.
 Development of rapport, goodwill, understanding and acceptance as the chief end result sought
by public relations activities.
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THE COMPONENTS AND TOOLS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public
A group of similar individuals; an assortment of persons having the same interests, problems,
circumstances, goals; it is from such persons that opinion emanates. Public is a varied creature; it comes
in many forms and sizes. Public has a multitude of wants and desires; it has its likes and dislikes,
sometimes, strong likes and strong dislikes. Employers make for a public and employees another public;
the government is a public and citizens constitute another public, and so on, each of these groups is a
public of the sort, tries to attract a different audience with its own tools and techniques.
Relations
Human wants to create the need to establish relations with one another. The representative wants of the
individuals will profoundly affect their relationship. To understand any relationship, therefore, one must
understand the wants of those involved.
Relationships are of all possible types. We have relationship by ran-superior to inferior, inferior to
superior, and equal to equal. We have relationship by sentiment-benevolent, Friendly, suspicious,
jealous, hostile.
A relationship may be active, or it may be passive it may be good or it may be bad, or it may be neutral.
At any rate, the relationship is there to be accepted, ignored or altered, as desired.
Propaganda:
Propaganda is the manipulation of symbols to transmit accepted attitudes and skills. It describes political
application of publicity and advertising, also on a large scale, to the end of selling an idea cause or
candidate or all three.
Campaigns: is an organized course of action to achieve a goal.
These consist of concerted, single-purpose publicity programme, usually on a more or less elaborate
scale, employing coordinated publicity through a variety of media, aimed, at a number of targets, but
focused on specific objectives. A campaign objective may be the election of a candidate, the promotion
of political cause or issue, the reaching of a sales goal, or the raising of a quota of funds.
Lobbying:
It entails the exertion of influence, smooth and measured pressure on other, exercise of persuasion cum-
pressure. In essence, it means a group putting its points of view forward in an attempt to win the other
groups support.
Some Possibilities that Would Call for Public Relations
Promotional Opportunity: To inform the new service / policy which call for Public Relations to make
wider publicity?
Competitive: To overcome the resistance (pre-set mind condition).
Controversy: To eliminate the contradictory conditions in between the organization and the public.
Adverse publicity: To inform the truth or correct issues and thereby removing the misunderstanding.
Catastrophe: Announcement of any unfavorable issues.
Crisis: Whenever threats arise.
PUBLIC RELATIONS IN GOVERNMENT
Public relations role in government:
The Government public relations contribute to:
 Implementation of public policy.
 Assisting the news media in coverage of government activities.
 Reporting the citizenry on agency activities.
 Increasing the internal cohesion of the agency.
 Increasing the agency’s sensitive to its public’s.
 Mobilization of support for the agency itself.
PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGY
For effective implementation of the Public Relations objective a Public Relations strategy is to be
evolved. The process of strategy starts with planning which consist of:
a) Determining Key results area
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b) Define roles
c) Selecting and setting objectives
d) Preparing action plans relating to programming, scheduling, budgeting, fixing accountability and
establishing rules and procedures.
Rice and Paisley suggest the guidelines for planning a successful campaign.
i. Assessment of the needs, goals and capabilities of target audiences.
ii. Systematic campaign planning and production
iii. Continuous evaluation
iv. Complementary roles of mass media and interpersonal communication
v. Selection of appropriate media for target audiences.
PUBLIC RELATIONS PROCESS
The definition of Public Relations as relations with the general public through publicity, those functions
of a corporation, organization, branch of military service, etc., concerned with informing the public of its
activities, policies, etc., attempting to create favorable public opinions.
Public Relation is the planned effort to influence opinion through good character and responsible
performance, based upon mutually satisfactory two-way communications.
1. Research-listening: This involves probing the opinions, attitudes and reactions of those
concerned with the acts and policies of an organization, then evaluating the inflow. This task also
requires determining facts regarding the organization: "what's our problem?"
2. Planning-decision making: This involves bringing these attitudes, opinions, ideas and reactions
to bear on the policies and programs of the organization. It will enable the organization to chart a course
in the interests of all concerned: "Here's what we can do."
3. Communication-action: This involves explaining and dramatizing the chosen course to all
those who may be affected and whose support is essential: "Here's what we did and why."
4. Evaluation: This involves evaluating the results of the program and the effectiveness of
techniques used: "How did we do?"
The first phase of Public Relations process is identifying and listing out the information or message to
be communicated.
The second phase of Public Relations is process to ascertain the existing image or awareness level about
the issue in the target group or common public.
The third phase of Public Relations is developing of communication objectives and priorities.
The fourth phase of Public Relations is deals with developing the message and choosing the media to
transit.
The fifth phase of Public Relations is the implementation of the message and media, coordination or the
dissemination of message.
The sixth phase of Public Relations is communication process to check whether message reached
properly and the expected action or behavior or knowledge on image factors.
The seventh phase of Public Relations in case the message did not reach properly identified the reason
for the ineffectiveness and rectification of the same and disseminates the revised message. Now, let us
briefly see the above component:
1. Listing and prioritizing of information to be disseminated:
May wish to inform the public:
a) The new policy of the Government or organization
b) The change in the existing policy
c) The new scheme promoted
d) The change in the existing scheme
Public Relations activity starts with identifying the message to be disseminated and prioritized.
2. Ascertaining the existing knowledge level or understanding the perceptions of the public
The organization can check a quick survey among the target group of the public to ascertain the
knowledge level of the issue for which the organization is planning to initiate Public Relations process

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and in case of the image it is essential to know whether the image is positive, neutral or negative in
terms of the assessment or in terms of the organization or both.
3. Communication objectives and priorities
Based on the knowledge level or image factor, communication objectives are to be established which is
possible to evaluate and the top management approval is required. The objective should be specific and
measurable.
4. Message and Media
After choosing the objective, the content of the message need to be developed. While developing the
message we should keep in mind the media in which we are going to use for disseminating that message.
TV/Visual media may be effective for showing the demonstrating awareness. Training media may be
effective whether the recipient may wish to keep the gap or further reference.
5. Implementation of message and media:
Based on the expected reaching level and target group, the budget is to be prepared and message is
transmitted through the appropriate media's.
6. Impact assessment:
After release of the message, it is essential to study the impact at interval by interacting with the target
group.
7. Message redesigned:
In case, the interaction of the target group reveals the message did not reach as expected the
modification in message or media need to be done and the revised message should be disseminated.

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Self-assessment tests
Part I: True/False
1. Public Relations are establishing the relationship among the two groups.
2. The first phase of Public Relations process is developing of communication objectives and priorities.
3. The picture should not tell a story.
4. Propagandais an organized course of action to achieve a goal.
5. After choosing the objective, the content of the message need to be developed.
Part II: Multiple Choice Questions
1. ----------- is the manipulation of symbols to transmit accepted attitudes and skills.
A. Propaganda
B. Campaigns
C. Lobbying
D. Adverse publicity
2. Of the following one is not Government public relations contribution?
1. Implementation of public policy.
2. Assisting the news media in coverage of government activities.
3. Reporting the citizenry on agency activities.
4. Decreasing the internal cohesion of the agency.
3. Which one of the following statement is correct?
A. Public Relations are establishing the relationship among the two groups.
B. Art or Science of developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill.
C. Relationships are of all possible types.
D. For effective implementation of the Public Relations objective a Public Relations strategy is to be
evolved.
E. All
4. A process of public relation which asks a question "what's our problem?" refers
A. Planning-decision making
B. Research-listening
C. Communication-action
D. Evaluation
5. The sixth phase of Public Relations is
A. Communication process to check whether message reached properly and the expected action or
behavior or knowledge on image factors.
B. The implementation of the message and media, coordination or the dissemination of message.
C. Developing the message and choosing the media to transit.
D. Developing of communication objectives and priorities.

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CHAPTER SIX: -MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

Objectives: After reading this lesson, the students will be able to:
A. Understand the concept of oral communication.
B. Recognize the concept of listening.
C. Explain the type of interviews.
D. Understand the concept of meeting.
6.1ORAL COMMUNICATION

6.1.1. Speeches

Speaking in public is common organizational communication activity. Administrators, boards of

directors, executives, and professional persons are called upon to speak. Thus, the ability to
communicate clearly, persuasively and confidently is one key to success for both business and
professional people. Whether a manager, engineer, marketer, people need strong speaking skills to
carry out their tasks. Speaking opportunities allow these people to demonstrate their thinking and
organizational skills. Such speaking opportunities occur both on the job and off the job in the form
of interviews, platform speaking before small and large groups and participation in meetings.

Planning to Speak
When preparing to speak define your purpose, analyze the audience and develop a plan for presenting
your points. Since speeches and presentations are delivered orally under relative public
circumstances, they require a few special communication techniques. These techniques are discussed
in the following:
 Defining the Purpose
The first step in preparing to speak is to determine the purpose. The purpose helps to determine content
and style. The purpose also affects the amount of audience interaction. The purpose of a speech may
be to motivate or entertain, to inform or analyze or to persuade or collaborate.
 Analyzing the audience
The speaker has to have information about the characteristic of his/her audience, which includes
considering the size and composition of the audience. The following are helpful in analyzing the
audience characteristics.
Audience size and composition
When analyzing the audience:
 Estimate the number of people that will attend.
 Consider whether they have some political, religious, professional or other affiliation in common.
Analyze a mix of men and women, age ranges, socioeconomic and ethnic groups, occupations and
geographic regions represented.
Level of audience understanding
 Determine whether the audience already knows something about the subject.Analyze whether
everybody has about the same amount of knowledge. Consider whether the audience is familiar with
your vocabulary.
 Estimate whether everybody is equally capable of understanding the message.
 Decide what background information the audience will need to understand the subject.
 Think about the mix of general concepts and specific details you will need to explain.
 Consider whether the subject involves routine, rewiring information or an unfamiliar topic.
Audience relationship with the speaker
 Analyze how this audience usually reacts to speakers.
 Determine whether the audience is likely to be friendly, open minded, or hostile toward your
purpose in making the speech or presentation.
 Decide how the audience is likely to respond to you.

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 Analyze what the audience expects from you.

 Think about your past interactions with the audience.
 Consider your relative status.
 Consider whether the audience has any basis that might work against you.
 Take in to account the audience’s probable attitude toward the organization that you represent.
 Decide which aspects of your background are most likely to build credibility.
iii. Developing the main idea- The main idea points how the audience can benefit from the speaker’s
idea. The speaker, then, has to determine the main idea or theme he/she wants to convey to the
audience.
iv. Developing an outline
In developing an outline begin with introduction that arouses the audience’s interest and gives a
preview of what is to come. In the body of each presentation explain what, when, where, why and
how of his/her subject. In the final paragraph or two, he/she has to review the points he/she made.
Regardless of the length of his/her speech or presentation the speaker has to bear in mind that
simplicity of organization is especially useful in oral communication. Once listeners lose the thread
of their comments they have a hard time tuning back in and following the remainder of the message
of the speaker. They don’t have enough time for reviewing a paragraph or flipping pages back and
forth, as they can when reading. So, look for the most obvious and natural way to organize your
ideas, using a direct order of presentation whenever possible. Explain at the beginning how you have
organized your material. Be sure to include only the most useful, interesting, and relevant supporting
evidence so that you can keep the audience’s attention. Reorient the audience at the end of each
section by summarizing the point you have just made and explaining how it fits in to your overall
speech or presentation. Estimating the length of time required conducting a specific speech or
presentation is also important because time for this purpose is often strictly regulated. So, you should
learn to tailor your material to the available time. The outline can serve you to estimate how long
your speech or presentation will be. In estimating time, be sure that your subject, purpose and
organization are compatible with the time available.
v. Note development
Notes keep you on the track as far as they provide clues to the major ideas and verbal support needed to
flesh out the talk’s content. Suggestions for making helpful notes: use key phrases, make notes easy
to read, avoid last minute changes, etc.
vi.Practice presentation
Speakers practice to increase their sense of control and to enhance their self-confidence. The speaker
will be able to deliver the talk with the major and minor points in the planed order with his/ her eyes
on the people in the audience. The speaker can make the practice in front of a mirror, before a small
group and using a tape recorder, he/her should check and practice pronunciation of words he/her is
unsure of and his/her timing.
vii. Conducting the speech
Conducting a speech consists the following structure of Speech/Presentation Structure:
 Opening (Introduction)
An effective opening sets an appropriate tone and establishes good feelings between you and your
listeners. Give your listeners a general idea of your topic even though you may not want to take a
stand on an issue early in the speech. One key objective of the opining should be to capture the
attention and interest of your audience and make them want to listen. You also want to win your
listeners’ respect. So, if you provide them with effective opener, they will have an expectation of
what will follow and the willingness to listen. Most people in your audience will be receptive or at
least neutral to you at first; they will be willing to listen if you can capture and maintain their
attention, otherwise, and it will be harder for you to hold their attention later. Do not apologize about
your speaking abilities or indicate that you are not fully prepared on the issues. Make your opening
concise, clear, and relevant.
 The Body
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The body is the main part of the speech. It has to be organized in a logical pattern. Use linking
transitional elements to hold the presentation together. These linking transitional elements review
briefly what you have just presented suggested and what comes next. Transitional words phrases and
sections help the audience mitigate through your presentation organizational plan. Some transitions
lead your listeners form fact to conclusion or inference such as, therefore, as a result, thus, for this
reason, etc. Some transitions indicate a time progression like now, later, meanwhile, next, finally,
etc. Others suggest certainty such as, obviously, surely, of course. Transitions may also suggest
comparison like likewise, similarly, or contrast: conversely, on the other hand, just for argument's
sake. Transition enhances the coherence and unity of your material (speech). It is telling your
listeners when you move to a new section. When you organize the body, focus on limited number of
key points.
Closing (conclusion)
The closing is as important as the opening. Listeners want a speech (presentation) to come to a neat,
tidy conclusion with all the loose ends tied up. Furthermore, people tend to remember most what
they hear last, you can take advantage of this by hammering home the main point of the end. So, it is
important to concentrate on a powerful close for your talk. Thus, when closing your talk,
 Summarize main points.
 Draw conclusions from facts presented in the body and make recommendations. Call for action or
challenge the audience to act.
viii. The question and answer period- Along with the introduction, body and close, include in your
speech or presentation an opportunity for questions and answers. If you do not plan to interact with
the audience, you will lose the advantage of formal communication. Responding to questions and
comments during the presentation interrupts the flow of your argument and reduces your control of
the situation. If you are addressing to a large group particularly a hostile or an unknown group,
questions can be dangerous. So, request people to hold their questions until the presentation is
finished. However, in small group, it is possible to encourage questions and comments while the
presentation is going on. Remember that questions are one of the most important parts of your
presentation. Questions give you a chance to obtain important information, to emphasize your maim
idea and supporting points, and enthusiasm for your point of view.
Visual Aids
 Use visual aids to highlight important information and create interest
 Select appropriate visual aids for small groups.
 Use slides or films for large groups.
 Use large and readable types of visual aids.
 Make sure equipment works.
Delivery Techniques
As you speak be natural, relaxed and in a personable manner. Your voice should exhibit expressiveness
and variety in pitch, rate and volume. To improve the clarity of your voice, actively use your vocal
equipment to articulate distinctly. Maintain strong eye contact to establish a conversational, two-way
communication channel with your audience. Use the extended eye contact method and distribute
your eye contact over the entire audience. Use body language to enhance your verbal message and
vitalize your delivery. Keep yourself neatly, dress appropriately and move confidently to project a
believable authoritative image. Use good speaker posture; stand erect with feet slightly apart weight
evenly distributed on both feet. Make sure your facial expressions and gestures are a spontaneous
outgrowth of your talk’s content your face should show interest in your listeners and subject matter,
and your gestures should be varied and positive.
6.1.2.Listening
Listening is one of the most important skills managers should have. It enables them to gain and
understand information, ideas, and suggestions of others during oral communication.
Active listening helps:
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 People to help themselves make better choice and better informed decisions.
 People admit to themselves things they usually avoid.
 People to take power over their own lives.
 The manager to know more and to understand better.
Active listening is the most effective way of gathering information in:
 Appraisal Interviews
 Selection Interviews
 Disciplinary Interviews
 Counseling Interviews
 Grievance Interviews
However, it may have some of the following common problems:
 Prejudice against the speaker.
 External distractions such as horning cars, shouting people, etc.
 Losing attention – shifting attention from the words of the speaker. This involves missing some
important words.
 Premature evaluation.
 Delivery problems; for instance, a monotone can put listeners to sleep or cause them to lose interest
and attention.
Then, to solve the above problems and achieve good listening objectives the listener needs to use active
listening to:
 Show that you are interested and care by sitting openly
 Be reassuring- you’re there for them
 Show you are listening with nods, ‘ahas’, etc
 Use questions- but don’t overuse them
 BUT do question to the depth you need to understand the issues important to the interviewee.
 Paraphrase what they say regularly
Moreover, the following points are important to remember in using active listening
 Please remember that it is in the listener’s interest that the speaker feels able to be frank.
 You need their information, even in a disciplinary interview.
 Don’t try to interpret- ASK What they mean
 Don’t make assumptions – ASK what they mean
 Don’t jump to conclusions –ASK what they mean
 Don’t impose your views – LISTEN to theirs
Results of good listening
Positive and purposive listening results the following benefits:
 Leads to helpful and positive attitudes. This is to say that because of the understanding the
 Hindrances that lie in the way of good listening are eliminated.
 Permits the speaker and listeners to improve communication because each side is more
 Aware of a receptive to the other’s viewpoint.
 Indicates the speaker that listeners are interested in listening and should try to give his/her best
presentation.
 Helps listeners to obtain useful information on which they can make accurate decisions.
 Creates better understanding of others and thus, help listeners work with others.
 Assists the speaker (especially in interview) in finding out a problem.
Good listening is demanding, requiring omission of personal biases as well as external. Distractions,
with a positive attitude and active involvement through personal summaries and evaluation, you can
have fruitful listening experiences.
6.1.3.The Telephone vs face to face communication
Business couldn’t run without the telephone. Telephone enables businesspersons to communicate
quickly and personally with people all over the world to exchange information.
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 Telephone communication is characterized by the following.

 It is brief or short
 Speakers may be in different environments making it susceptible to disruptions.
 Deprived of nonverbal communication.
Thus, to ensure good use of the telephone practice the following guidelines are important for
consideration:
Planning telephone discussion
 Have positive attitude towards the receiver
 Ensure telephone is the best means
 Determine appropriate time for calling
 Outline the important points for discussion
 Make sure you have the right number before you dial
Conversing in telephone
 When the receiver responds identify yourself immediately
 Ask whether it is convenient to talk
 Be attentive and active in listening
 Close your call courteously (say thanks)
Receiving calls
 Be prepared to receive calls psychologically and get writing materials
 Answer the call immediately when it rings
 Identify yourself or your organization
 Make every effort go get the message correctly
 Explain any delays (if any)
6.1.4Interviews
The term interview refers to all types of planned, face-to-face encounters in which at least one of the
participants has a specific objective in mind. Interviewing includes gathering or giving information.
Types of interviews
The following are some common types of interviews that may show the characteristics of other forms
of interviews
Employment interview – Employment interview is a face-to-face interview that encounters between
prospective employee and prospective employer. This interview helps managers to select the best
personnel and enables the employee to select the right job in the right organization. In this type of
interview, the interviewer obtains information about the candidate’s background, character and
goals, conveys information about the job and organization and assesses candidate’s attitudes. The
interviewee is also able to obtain information about the job and organization and demonstrate
competence and qualification.
Employee appraisal interview – in employee appraisal interview, both the employer and the employee
are expected to evaluate the employee’s performance and set future goals. This helps to recognize
and reward employee contributions and motivate employees. The interviewer summarizes
employee’s performance ratings, establish clear goals for the next appraisal period and maintain
positive tone. On the other hand, the interviewee has to listen and discuss any problems and
understand goals for next appraisal period.
Grievance interview – Grievance interview is a type of one-to-one encounters involving conflict and
its resolution. For example, employer-employee disputes over working hours. This interview is
unique in that emotions often run at a much higher level than in most other types of interviews. The
interviewer in the grievance interview must be both a good listener and a problem solver.
Exit interview – An interviewer conducts exit interview to find out why an employee is leaving a job
and to obtain the employee’s assessment of the job and organization. An exit interview can be
conducted by auditors, evaluators and supervisors. This helps the interviewer to identify an

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organization's potential problems and take corrective actions. The exit interview is also helpful to
create goodwill for the organization because the employee explains reasons for leaving.
Disciplinary interview – Disciplinary interview is conducted to understand employee problems when
they violate rules and regulations or when they engage in an act of misconduct and identify their
causes, explain disciplinary action and try to improve employee’s attitudes.
Persuasive interview – This interview is conducted to influence a person. Many employee customer
situations are persuasive (example sales) interviews. It influences the choices the customer makes,
but not through coercion or trickery. A successful persuasive interviewer must appeal to the values
and needs of the interviewee very much like persuasive speaker.
Counseling interview – It is conducted to identify problems and suggest solutions.
Planning interviews
Most interviews are planned before hand and evaluated afterwards. When planning an interview
exercise the following:
i. Determine goals for the interview-An interview has clear goals; such as, to select job candidates, to
appraise employee's performance or to resolve conflicts, etc. Besides it has to consider the
approaches or strategies that will best achieve your goals. This involves evaluating the needs, goals
and interests of both the interviewer and the interviewee.
ii. Choose appropriate question-There are four common types of interview questions. These are
described below.
Open-ended questions – They are broad general questions that allow the respondent maximum
freedom in deciding how much and what kind of information to give. Open-ended questions also
enable the interviewer to freely talk. They can help the interviewer discover unexpected information.
However, they have the following disadvantages:
 The interviewee’s vague or irrelevant responses may waste time.
 The interviewer may have a problem to sort out the key points of the interviewee’s responses.
 Interviewer may lose control of the interview.
 Some interviewees may become nervous because they don’t know where to begin.
Examples of open-ended questions are:
What skills would you bring to this job?
Tell me about your complain?
Why are you living our company?
Closed questions – These questions completely limit the respondent’s choice of answers by requiring
him to select one of the answers supplied in the question.
Example:
Have you written the sales report?
Do you smoke?
Is your main goal to make money, or are you more interested in serving humanity?
Advantage
 The interviewer can get maximum control over the questions and answers.
 The answers are easy to interpret and more questions can be asked in less time
Disadvantage
 They do not allow for any detailed explanations
 They do not allow respondent to impart real feelings when the choices given do not include his/her
preferred choice.
iii. Choose the most appropriate place and time-Most interviews take place in an office or
conference room. However, as an interviewer, you can set up the physical space, so that it helps you
to meet the goals you have set for the interview.
iv.Conducting the interview
Conducting the interview involves the following three phases:
1) Opening phase-In addition to establishing rapport in the opening of an interview, the interviewer
should give clear orientation. The orientation should include the following information.
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 Verification of the interviewee’s name

 The interviewer’s name and why he/she is conducting the interview.
 The purpose and/or desired outcome of the interview.
 What information is needed and how it will be used.
 Approximate length of the interview.
Establish a pleasant atmosphere unless you are conducting a stress interview, you can establish a
rapport with your interviewee by greeting the person pleasantly and briefly talking about matters
unrelated to the interview. This warm-up period helps the parties to the interview to relax, but it
should be short. In addition, the interviewee can create good first impression by being on time
(punctual) dressing appropriately, being well-prepared and appearing confidant and relaxed.
2) Question - response phase
This phase is the heart of the interview. Both the interviewer and interviewee have the opportunity to
ask questions, respond to statements and provide feedback. The interviewer should anticipate
possible interview responses and be prepared to change the type of questions and the organization of
the questions if necessary. Similarly, the interviewee should anticipate possible questions from the
interviewer. Active listening is essential on the part of both parties. The interviewer should be aware
of the interviewee’s nonverbal and verbal communication.
3) Closing phase
The closing phase of any type of interview should begin with a summary of the major points covered in
the interview and of any conclusions reached important topics have been discussed and that no
informal errors have been made. The interviewee should get a chance to ask questions. Finally, the
interview should always end with each participant’s thanking the other for the time given and the
cooperation shown.
vi)Evaluating Interview
When the interview is over, evaluate the result.
6.1.5. Meetings
Meetings take place when individuals get together with the idea of talking about or sharing their
knowledge, ideas, views, and experiences. Many managers put “meeting” at the top of their lists of the
greatest time-wasters ever. Practically however managers spend not less than 70% of their time in
meeting and these increases through the hierarchy. Meetings are powerful communication tools in
managerial performance. They are, however, costly communication tools. They must thus stem from
clear goals.
Meetings can have for goals or objectives
 obtaining information
 giving information
 solving problems
 selling ideas
Before meetings are planned or conducted the following questions should be answered properly:
 Is the meeting really necessary?
 What will happen it the meeting is not called?
 Does it really merit the investment of time and cost?
When to call meetings
First, you should call a meeting when:
1. You need to reach a group judgment as the basis for a decision.
2. You need to discover analyze or solve a problem.
3. You need to gain acceptance from the group for an idea, program, or decision.
4. You need to achieve a training objective.
5. You need to reconcile conflicting views.
6. You need provide essential information for work guidance or for the relief of insecurities or
tensions. You need to assure equal understanding or company policy, methods, or decisions
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7. You need to obtain immediate reactions to a problem that requires a speedy response.
On the other hand you should not call meeting
1. When other communication, such as telephone telegram, letter, or memo, will produce the
desired result.
2. When there is not sufficient time for adequate preparation by participants or the meeting leader.
3. When one or more key participants cannot be available.
4. When the meeting is not likely to produce satisfactory results because of personality conflicts or
conflicts with overall management strategy.
5. When expected results do not warrant spending the money it will cost to hold the meeting.
Planning to conduct meetings to make them effective
In planning to conduct meetings, we can follow the following steps.
i. Define objectives
Regularly held meetings include management’s annual and semiannual planning meetings, weekly
departmental meetings, project staff meetings and meetings between supervisors and subordinates. But,
whether two or two hundred people are present, business meetings invariably have one of three kinds of
objective information exchange, problem solving or some combination of the two. When you decide a
meeting or are asked to chair one, your first thought should concern not what you want to happen at the
meeting but what you want to happen after it is over. Once you have determined the desired outcome for
the meeting, you will be able to select the participants, build the agenda, and establish the time.
In ensuring clear definition of meeting objectives, the following questions are vital
 Have I clearly defined the purpose or purposes of the meeting?
 What are the outcomes that should emerge from this meeting?
ii. Selecting the participants
You should invite people who either can contribute to a meeting or have a stake in its outcome. If the
purpose of the meeting is to share information, do your own part in collecting needed data and see that
all those attending know what specific contributions are expected of them. When you select participants,
you should not think solely about their potential contributions but also about their concerns and
attitudes. If this is a problem-solving session and the problem is sensitive or controversial, try to limit
the participants to a manageable number. However, be sure to include those who can make an important
contribution and those who are key decision-makers.
There are some principles to follow when determining who should attend a meeting. As a rule, invite the
following people or groups:
 People or departments who are expected to carry out a decision to be reached at the meeting.
 People who possess unique information that they can contribute to the meeting.
 People whose approval may be needed at the meeting.
 People who have official responsibility for the matter under discussion.
 People who have personal contribution to make from a strategic standpoint (that is, whose
support you want or whose opposition you want to avoid politically).
iii. Announcing Meeting
The written announcement should contain the following information
 Why the meeting is held; members should know that the purpose of the meeting is and what their
role is to be.
 When the meeting starts and ends. Most announcements indicate the starting time; too few say
how long the meeting is expected to last.
 Where the meeting is to be held: If attendees are likely to be unfamiliar with the location, a map
or some description of how to find it should be included.
 Who is going to attend: The complete list of attendees should be provided for everyone to see.
 What is going to be considered in the meeting: An agenda or outline of the meeting’s proceeding
should be included.
The written announcement of the meeting should contain the following information:
Why the meeting is being held
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Members should know what the purpose of the meeting is, and what their role is to be.
iv. Preparing an Agenda
The purpose of an agenda is to ensure that the meeting is focused on the appropriate issues or topics, that
they are sensibly ordered, and that an appropriate amount of time is allotted to them. It is the
responsibility of the chairperson to prepare the agenda because a well-planned agenda can guarantee a
better outcome and make a job much easier. But if it is important to him/her first learn what is on
people’s minds, he/she should initially send out a brief memo stating the purpose of the meeting and
asking participants to suggest their own agenda items. In building an agenda, first, the chairperson has to
list the matters to be discussed and try to sequence the items so that they follow one another logically.
Before any issue is to be debated, he/she has to be sure that necessary information exchange can take
place. He/she should take sufficient time to gather the data himself/herself or to call on appropriate
person to do so. In determining the time required for each item in the agenda it is necessary to take
adequate time. A type written copy of the agenda has to be distributed to each participant a day or two in
advance.
Agenda
A written agenda consists a list of issues to be dealt or discussed at a particular meeting. It helps
participants of a meeting to know the subject of discussion and keep them on track once the meeting
begins. Usually it is the responsibility with the chairperson to prepare the agenda in consultation of the
secretary. Announcement is made to participants early enough to give them adequate time to prepare
their thoughts on the matter. The announcement consist the following items:
 Name of the organization/group and the date of announcement.
 The day, date, time and place of meeting.
 Roll call (participants)
 The topic program of business to be transacted,
 Approval of agenda.
 Approval of minutes from previous meeting.
 Chairperson’s report.
 Subcommittee reports.
 Unfinished business/topic.
 New business /topic.
 Announcements.
 Adjournment.
 Responsibility of participants.
 Back ground papers or information, if any.
 Signature of a secretary.
v. Fixing the Place and Time
The time and place of a meeting can affect the success of the meeting. Use neutral conference room and
avoid the number of interruptions such as the telephone calls. Consider the seating arrangement such as,
rows of chairs, conference tables, etc, room temperature, lighting, ventilation, and refreshments. As far
as the choice of the right time is concerned, it depends on the common sense of the chairperson. Usually
morning meetings are productive.
Moreover the following questions may be helpful in planning meetings
1) How much time will the meeting probably take?
2) What information, if any, do members need before the meeting?
3) What follow-up, if any, do members need before the meeting?
4) What agenda will the meeting follow?
5) What physical arrangements need to be made for the meeting?
The facility in which the meeting is to be held should also be given careful consideration as a part of the
planning process. This may include equipment and several aspects of the environment, temperature and
ventilation.
vi. Conducting and chairing the Meeting
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When a meeting is conducted, as a participant, arrive on time and be well prepared. Be attentive and
give others their due. Don’t be calm or a shrinking violet. If you have something relevant and
worthwhile to say, say it. Don’t interrupt other speakers discourteously, but if you need to be assertive to
get past someone’s blocking action, do so with calm authority. When you are asked direct questions,
give direct answers. During the meeting, the job of the chairperson is to control the discussion without
dominating it. Since the group is in his/her charge, he/she will need to assist the weak, draw out the
silent, and actively encourage the exchange of ideas. To do so, he/she has to be a good observant and a
good listener and steer a careful path. When all viewpoints on a controversial issue have been heard, the
chairperson has to call for a consensus and summarize the accomplishments of the meeting at its close.
vii. Parliamentary Procedure
The rules of parliamentary procedure include the following:
- The majority rules must be respected
- The rights of the minority are protected
- Business must be accomplished
- Human feelings must be respected.
viii. Preparing Minutes
Minutes are official records of discussions and decisions made at a meeting. A secretary of a meeting
usually writes them. Minutes objectively summarize the discussions made, the conclusions reached,
recommendations made and the tasks assigned to members and groups. Minutes should be accurate and
empirical. The emotions and feelings if any expressed by members during the course of discussion are
not recorded. However, the names of those who contributed major points and ideas should be recorded.
The writer of the minute has to take down notes carefully at the meeting. Soon after it is over, he/she has
to prepare the draft of the minutes. Then let the chairperson check it to ensure accuracy. The minute are
reflects the agenda of the meeting and should include the following information.
 The name of the organizational unit/group e.g. Board of directors, promotion committee,
budgeting committee.
 The date, time and place of the meeting.
 The number of the meeting if it is in series e.g. Sixth Meeting of the Board of directors.
 Name of the chairperson and name of persons attended (present).
 Names of persons unable to attend.
 Names of person who attended by special invitation.
 Any motions and the names of the people who made and seconded them.
 Summary of agenda items covered general responses to each item any recommendations or
decisions that were made and the names of people who made significant contributions.
 Any items that will be covered in future meetings.
 Signature of the secretary and the chairperson.
The minute becomes final only when it has been read at the end of the meeting or next meeting,
approved by the members, signed by the members or chairperson. Often, it is circulated beforehand, and
then it is confirmed at the second meeting including amendments and suggestions of members, if any.
ix. Following up meetings
Minutes should be distributed to respective members and concerned individuals for implementation and
consistent follow up.
Conditions that make meetings effective Reminder
 Appropriate combination of members
 Agenda must be prepared and distributed with a head of time
 Minutes of every meeting must be prepared, approved, signed, distributed and filed.
 Every meeting should begin and end the specific time.
6.2. Written Communication

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As the name implies it is the communication which is produced in black and white. A written
communication is conveyed through a letter, reports, circulars, memoranda, notices, etc. It is a very
common form of communication in most organizations and is suitable for many situations.
6.2. Business letter writing
Business letters are the heartbeat of business communication. Therefore it is very important that extreme
care and caution be practiced when drafting business letters. Different scenarios require different kind of
business communication via letters. The person in-charge needs to have the presence of mind and skill
to be able to draft situation-specific business letters. In case you do not know the know-how of business
letter-writing, we’re happy to be your guide and offer you all the help we can.

6.2.2 Memos and report Writing

The memo has, for years, been the primary form of written communication among employees and
managers alike. The use of letters, often perceived to be more formal, has declined in recent years.
Although both forms of correspondence have, in some instances, been replaced by online
communication, most managers today still use both memos and letters, often distinguishing between the
two by assigning arbitrary interpretations of formality to govern their use.
When to Use report writing
The letter is often reserved for longer, more personal, or more formal communication.
Communication by letter is often unequal as described in unit 1. Such communication might occur, for
example, between a manager and an employee or between a personnel officer and an interview
candidate.
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Letters can be used to acknowledge receipt of packages from other organizations, to request information,
or to solicit goods and services from outside organizations. In your own work as a manager, you
probably already correspond with prospective employees using letters, and you may write letters of
employment, congratulations, or promotion as well as budget requests using letters. Because many
letters are written to address specific situations, strategies for writing them may be situational as well,
requiring that you assess the audience carefully before you write. In general, even in letter writing, it is
best to convey your message directly and up front, although letters conveying bad news or making an
involved proposal may warrant some background before the purpose of the letter is fully stated.
Memo Format
Structurally, memos differ from letters in that they do not contain salutations and complimentary closes.
Many organizations, in fact, adopt a boilerplate format for the headings that you first see when reading a
memo: headings such as TO, FROM, SUBJECT, and DATE.
When it is written and designed properly, a memo is visually appealing and easy to read.
Office memos longer than one page often benefit from headings that segment the text for readers. Many
office memos also conventionally include the initials of the sender as well as a list of others to whom the
memo has been sent. Occasionally, if there are enclosures that accompany the memo, the word
Enclosure or abbreviation Encl. is included at the bottom of the memo, as are the initials of the typist if
the memo was not prepared by its original author.
Although the paragraphs in memos are usually kept short for readability, multiple-page memos are
acceptable for complex subjects. In addition, some companies now use software programs that allow
writers to create memos easily, transmit them to recipients using electronic mailboxes, and store copies
in memo files online.
The format of the memo exhibits its practical, economical role in office communication.
The design of the memo aids writers in distributing it to many people, and it helps readers easily
recognize both the subject of the memo and its sender. The standard headings are less personal than the
salutation of most letters, and the block paragraph style used in the United States makes the text appear
different from that used in letters or casual prose. In addition, the brevity of the memo makes it an ideal
form for providing summary information or for introducing longer reports. Cover memos, for example
are frequently attached to longer reports to establish goals or timetables for their readers or to influence
those reading the longer reports.
Swindle and Swindle (1989, 97) illustrate many of the commonly used sections of the memo. You will
notice that the writer uses the memo format to report on findings, to summarize advantages of a
particular position, and to make a recommendation.
Report writing Format
Letter formats are often a source of confusion because of the extent to which they can vary from writer
to writer, from company to company, and from culture to culture. Unlike memo writing, letter writing is
generally something that we learn as children and adapt to meet our needs throughout our lives. Most
children learning to write letters in school, learn, for example, that all letters have some parts in common
but that the writing and design of the parts can vary considerably. They learn that personal letters vary
from business letters sometimes predictably (as when you affix the title of the person you are writing to
in business letters) and sometimes mysteriously (as when the signature of the sender appears twice—
typed and then written out—in business letters). As adults, we learn that some conventions of letter
writing may change as business and societal preferences change—such as dropping the "Dear" from
business salutations—or as the workplace itself changes and invalidates general but overly formal (and
gender-specific) greetings such as Dear Sirs and Gentlemen.
The format that you use or advocate for use in your organization should be adequate for immediate
needs but flexible enough to accommodate change. Although specific style guidelines may be set by the
organization, in general, all business letters should include the following sections in formats similar to
those discussed below.

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• Sender's address or letterhead—it is important legally for business writers to identify themselves
and their company on all business correspondence. The sender's address or company address in
letterhead should be displayed prominently on the top center or right of the first page.
• Receiver's full name and address—the receiver's full name and address, including job title, should
appear in the upper left of the first page. This inside address should match or surpass in detail the
address contained on the external envelope.
• Salutation or greeting—few other sections of the letter are as important as this one, because this
section predisposes the letter's reader to its writer. To be most effective, the salutation should identify
the reader exactly and in a manner that is acceptable, according to how well the writer and reader know
one another. Whenever possible, exact names with preferred designations of Miss,
Mrs., Ms., or Mr. should be identified and used. Outdated designations such as
Madame, Mesdames, or Sirs should be avoided.
• Body—the body of the letter should be formatted and presented for easy reading. Depending on the
organizational style preferences, writers can choose from a variety of accepted paragraph styles,
including full and modified block, simplified, and traditionally indented (Swindle and Swindle 1989,
119). Within the body, paragraphs should be short, and, in technical passages especially, key words or
concepts may be identified with run-in headings (headings within the same line as body text) and with
bold type.
• Closing—often called the complimentary close, the closing completes the writer's thoughts in a
manner that displays good spirits, encourages, shows sincerity, or shows respect. Like salutations,
closings should be exact, mirroring the tone of the letter as nearly as the writer can. It is important to
match the tone of the letter to avoid embarrassing or inappropriate closings such as "Good luck," or
"Best regards," in letters of termination, or "Thank you," in letters that do not convey thanks.
• Sender's signature—although signature is not entirely appropriate for the information that
customarily ends a business letter, it is a term commonly used to refer to the information of which the
signature is only a part. The sender's identification includes the signature of the writer, his or her title,
and other information that designates the writer's organizational status such as the department or
division and company name.

Self-assessment tests
Part I: True/False
1. Speaking in public is common organizational communication activity.
2. Give your listeners a general idea of your topic even though you may not want to take a stand on
an issue early in the speech.
3. Business could run without the telephone.
4. Grievance interview is a type of one-to-one encounters involving conflict and its resolution.
5. Open ended questions completely limit the respondent’s choice of answers by requiring him to
select one of the answers supplied in the question.
Part II: Multiple Choice Questions
1. One of the following isgoals or objectives of Meetings.
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1. obtaining information
2. giving information
3. solving problems
4. selling ideas
5. All
2. Of the following one is not rules of parliamentary procedure?
A. The majority rules must be respected
B. The rights of the minority are protected
C. Business must be accomplished
D. Human feelings must be respected.
E. None of the answer
3. Which one of the following is a closed question?
A. Do you smoke?
B. Why are you living our company?
C. Tell me about your complain?
D. What skills would you bring to this job?
4. Which one of the following is the main part of the speech?
A. Body
B. Closing
C. Conclusion
D. Opening
5. What is the importance of active listening?
A. People to help themselves make better choice and better informed decisions.
B. People admit to themselves things they usually avoid.
C. People to take power over their own lives.
D. The manager to know more and to understand better.
E. All

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