Fundamental of Visual Image Interpretation & Its Keys

1. Introduction
The analysis of remote sensing imagery involves the identification of various targets in an
image, and those targets may be environmental or artificial features which consist of points,
lines, or areas. Targets may be defined in terms of the way they reflect or emit radiation. This
radiation is measured and recorded by a sensor, and ultimately is depicted as an image product
such as an air photo or a satellite image.

Image interpretation

Visual interpretation and digital image processing techniques are two important techniques of
data analysis to extract resource related information either independently or in combination
with other data. Visual interpretation methods have been the traditional methods for extracting
information, based on the target characteristics on aerial photograph or satellite imagery. A
human interpreter uses various parameters of object recognition and interpret objects/
phenomena, spatial and spectral patterns etc.

Image interpretation is defined as 'the art of examining images for the purpose of identifying
objects and judging their significance. Interpreters study remotely sensed data and attempt
through logical processes in detecting, identifying, classifying, measuring and evaluating the
significance of physical and cultural object, their patterns and spatial relationships. Image
interpretation is a complex process of physical, physiological activities occurring in a sequence
begins with the detection and identification of images and later by their measurements.
Different aspects of image interpretation (Vink 1964) are listed below in a simpler form most
of these have overlapping function.

The most basic of these principles are the elements of image interpretation. They are: location,
size, shape, shadow, tone/color, texture, pattern, height/depth and site/ situation/ association.
These are routinely used when interpreting an aerial photo or analyzing satellite image. Aerial
photographs as well as imagery, obtained by remote sensing using aircraft or spacecraft as
platforms, have applicability in various fields. By studying the qualitative as well as
quantitative aspects of images recorded by various sensor systems, like aerial photographs
(black‐and‐white, black‐and‐white infrared, colour and colour infrared), multiband
photographs, satellite data (both pictorial and digital) including thermal and radar imagery, an
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interpreter well experienced in his field can derive lot of information. The primary task of the
interpreter is the detection and identification of objects, features, phenomena and processes.
This is primarily a stimulus and response activity. The interpreter conveys his or her response
by labelling. These labels are often expressed in qualitative terms, e.g. likely, possible,
probable, or certain. Therefore, it is a process of 'picking out' object element from the photo or
image through interpretation techniques. It may be detection of point, line or polygons viz.
forest land, agricultural fields, settlement patterns, road network, tube wells, dug wells etc.

Detection and Identification:

An interpreter studies remotely sensed data and attempts through logical process to detect,
identify, measure and evaluate the significance of environmental and cultural objects, patterns
and spatial relationships. It is an information extraction process. Anyone who looks at a
photograph or imagery in order to recognize an image is an interpreter. A soil scientist, a
geologist or a hydro geologist, a forester or a planner, trained in image interpretation can
recognize the vertical view presented by the ground objects on an aerial photograph or a
satellite image, which enables him or her to detect many small or subtle features. An interpreter
is, therefore, a specialist trained in the study of photograph or imagery, in addition to his or her
own discipline. The present discussion mainly pertains to the techniques of visual
interpretation, the application of various instruments and the extraction of information.

Recognition

It is a process of classification or trying to distinguish an object by its characteristics or patterns

which are familiar on the image. It preceded the process of detection. Sometimes it is also
termed as photo reading e.g. vegetation, water bodies, built-up land etc.

Analysis

It is a process of resolving or separating a set of objects or features having similar set of

characteristics. In analysis 'lines of separation' are drawn between groups of objects and the
degree of reliability of these lines can also be indicated e.g. vegetation as that of built-up land,
water bodies with that of waste lands etc.

Classification

It is a process of identification and grouping of objects or features resolved by analysis. It

arranges 'features of recurrence' in the same class or group to which the feature belongs. Any
wrong identification and analysis may often lead to misclassification.
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Deduction

Deduction may be directed to the separation of different groups of objects or elements and
deducing their significance based on covering evidence. The evidence is derived from mainly
visible objects or from invisible elements, which give only partial information on the nature of
certain correlative indications. Deduction as regard to the identification of objects made
without proper pre-interpretation checks in the field, may often be misleading and result in
wrong classification. For complicated interpretation, therefore, it is advisable to affect the
separation under this process and leave the deduction of the identity till after the clarification.

Idealization

It is a process of drawing ideal or standard representation from what is actually identified and
interpreted from the image or map with standard symbols and colors.

2. Elements of Visual Interpretation

Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation and information extraction. Observing the
differences between targets and their backgrounds involves comparing different targets based
on any, or all, of the visual elements of tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow, location,
association and height. Some of these elements are interconnected and are classified into three
orders viz. Basic or First order elements (Tone), Second order (Texture, shape, size, pattern)
and Third order (Location, Association, Shadow and Height). Visual interpretation using these
elements is often a part of our daily lives, whether we are conscious of it or not. Examining
satellite images on the weather report, or following high speed chases by views from a
helicopter are all familiar examples of visual image interpretation. Identifying targets in
remotely sensed images based on these visual elements allows us to further interpret and
analyze. The nature of each of these interpretation elements is described below, along with an
image example of each.

A. Basic, first order elements of image interpretation

1. Tone/Colour - Tone refers to the relative brightness of objects in an image. Generally, tone
is the fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features. Variations
in tone also allow the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.
Colour may be defined as each distinguishable variation on an image produced by a multitude
of combinations of hue, value and chroma. Therefore tone refers to the relative brightness or
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colour of objects on an image. (Figure 1).

 Fig.1: Colour Variations

Fig.2: Tonal variations

Many factors influence the tone or colour of objects or features recorded on photographic
emulsions. Human interpreter can distinguish between ten to twenty shades of grey, but can
distinguish many more colours (figure 2). Some authors state that interpreters can distinguish
at least 100 times more variations of colour on colour photography than shades of gray on black
and white photography.

B. Second order -- Geometric Arrangements of Objects

1. Size –The size of objects can be important in discrimination of objects and features ( single
family vs. multi-family residences, scrubs vs. trees, etc.). In the use of size as a diagnostic
characteristic both the relative and absolute sizes of objects can be important. Size can also be
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used in judging the significance of objects and features (size of trees related to board feet which
may be cut; size of agricultural fields related to water use in arid areas, or amount of fertilizers
used; size of runways gives an indication of the types of aircraft that can be accommodated) as
shown in figure 3. It is important to assess the size of a target relative to other objects in a
scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in the interpretation of that target.

Fig.3: Size as parameter for visual interpretation

2. Shape - Shape refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual objects. Shape
can be a very distinctive clue for interpretation. Straight edge shapes typically represent urban
or agricultural (field) targets, while natural features, such as forest edges, are generally more
irregular in shape, except where man has created a road or clear cuts. Similarly, roads
can have right angle turns, rail lines do not. play grounds, large buildings, parks etc. have
specific shapes and can easily be identified shown in figure 4.

Fig.4: Shape as parameter for visual interpretation

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3. Texture: It refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas
of an image. The visual impression of smoothness or roughness of an area can often be a
valuable clue in image interpretation. Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where
the grey levels change abruptly in a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very
little tonal variation as shown in figure 5. Smooth textures are most often the result
of uniform, even surfaces, such as fields, asphalt, or grasslands. A target with a rough
surface and irregular structure, such as a forest canopy, results in a rough textured appearance.
Similarly, various density of scrub vegetation shows different texture. Uniform fields of
crops, water bodies etc gives smooth texture.

Fig.5: Textural variations

4. Pattern: Pattern is the spatial arrangement of objects. Pattern can be either man-made or
natural. Pattern is a macro image characteristic. It is the regular arrangement of objects that
can be diagnostic of features on the landscape. Arrangements of complex drainage in
the form of ravines can be identified easily. Likewise, the network or grid of streets in a
sub- division or urban area can aid identification and aid in problem solving such as the
growth patterns of a city. Pattern can also be very important in geological or
geomorphologolical analysis. Drainage pattern can tell the trained observer a great deal about
the lithology and structural patterns in an area (figure 6). Dendritic drainage patterns develop
on flat bedded sediments; radial on/over domes; linear or trellis in areas with faults or other
structural controls.
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 Fig.6: Pattern variations

C. Third order -- Location or Positional Elements

1. Shadow: It is useful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the profile and relative
height of a target or targets which may make identification easier. However, shadows can
also reduce or eliminate interpretation in their area of influence, since targets within shadows
are much less (or not at all) discernible from their surroundings. Shadow is also useful for
enhancing or identifying topography and landforms (figure 7).

Fig.7 Shadow used for identifying topography in imagery

2. Location: How objects are arranged with respect to one another; or with respect
to various terrain features, can be an aid in interpretation. Aspect, topography, geology, soil,
vegetation and cultural features such as salt pans, settlements, industrial establishments
etc. on the landscape are distinctive factors that the interpreter should use when examining a
site. The relative importance of each of these factors will vary with local conditions, but all
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are important. Just as some vegetation grows in swamps others grow on sandy
ridges. Agricultural crops may like certain conditions. Man made features may also be
found on rivers (e.g. power plant) or on a hill top (observatory or radar facility).

3. Association: It takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or
features in proximity to the target of interest. The identification of features that one would
expect to associate with other features may provide information to facilitate identification.
Some objects are so commonly associated with one another that identification of one tends
to indicate or confirm the existence of another. Smoke stacks, step buildings, cooling ponds,
transformer yards, coal piles, railroad tracks = coal fired power plant. Arid terrain, basin
bottom location, highly reflective surface, sparse vegetation = playa. water body surrounded
by salt pond and saline patches = salt production units (figure 8). Association is one of the
most helpful clues in identifying man made installations. Aluminium manufacture requires
large amounts of electrical energy. Absence of a power supply may rule out this industry.
Cement plants have rotary kilns. Schools at different levels typically have characteristic
playing fields, parking lot and cluster of building in urban area

Fig.8 salt patches and salt production unit

4. Height: Height can add significant information in many types of interpretation tasks;
particularly those that deal with the analysis of man-made features. How tall a tree is can tell
something about board feet. How deep an excavation can tell something about the amount of
material that was removed (in some mining operations excavators are paid on the basis of
material removed as determined by photogrammetric analysis). High rise buildings with

symmetry of windows and parking arrangements shows residential (figure 9).

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 Fig.9 High rise buildings with parking arrangements

3. Steps to prepare thematic maps using visual interpretation

Step 1: Acquisition of data

i. Standard false color composite made of green, red and infrared bands of RS data of two

seasons Kharif (June-September) and Rabi (October - March)

ii. Ancillary data – Topographical maps (As per the requirement i.e. 1:250,000 or 1:50,000

scale).

Step 2 : Preliminary Interpretation

i. Check the area to be interpreted is covered on RS data.

ii. Spread the satellite imagery on a light table and fix it firmly.

iii. Orient the imagery with respect to SOI map corresponding to the scene, with reference to

latitudes and longitudes marked on the imagery and physical and cultural features.

iv. Cut to the size of the imagery the artian tracing sheet or polyester tracing sheet (rough
surface

facing top) or acetate base film and fix it on the scene with transparent tape.

v. For interpretation use ordinary pencil (HB or H)

vi. At the bottom corner, note latitude, longitude from scene, date and year of scene,
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vii. scene path-row number, name of district, state etc.

Step 3: Final Interpretation

i. Identify and recognise the different land use / land cover, on the imagery based on

image characteristics, for correct classification of land use, refer classification system.

ii. Considering the general interpretation key for land use land cover, develop a separate

interpretation key for the specific area under study.

iii. After identification of a category, delineate and map it on transparent over lay, for

better clarity and discernibility, use magnifying lens.

iv. To minimize doubtful area, use other satellite images, information from topographical

maps, forest maps or any other maps available.

v. Use numerical or alphabetical notation or colours to each of the land use / land cover

classes delineated.

vi. Land use / land cover categories having similar spectral signature, appearing side by

side require detail ground verification.

vii. Minimum mapping unit is 3 mm x 3 mm, all details less than the minimum mapping unit
are excluded from mapping, for better visual separation and cartographic representation.

Step 4: Transfer of details on to the base map

i. Transfer the interpreted details on to a base map prepared from topographic map.

Transfer notified forest boundaries on to the base map.

ii. Finalise the map after incorporating post field data.

Step 5: Area Calculation

i. Calculate area of different land use / land cover categories either using a millimeter
Polythene graph sheet and / or a planimeter.

ii. For better consistency and accuracy of area calculation, repeat the operation at least thrice
and select the average of the two nearest values.

iii. Compute the area both in square km and in hectares, also calculate percentage.
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 Generation of Cartographic Quality map

i. Retrace the map on a new transparent sheet using appropriate rotring pens.

ii. Prepare the fair drawing original, with proper legend, scale, north arrow etc.

4. Interpretation aids

On the basis of tasks to be carried out, visual interpretation aids can be classified into three
categories viz. Aids for viewing including enhancement, transfer of detail and measurement.
Interpretation aids can also be classified as equipment for monoscopic viewing and stereo
viewing. It should however be pointed out that the categorisation is not rigid as certain
equipment can be classified into more than one category particularly some of the projection
devices which can be used for both viewing and transfer of details. Some of the equipments
have become obsolete due to availability of high quality and cost effective FCC data
products. In context of land use/cover the aids used only for transferring of details have been
discussed here. Basically the equipment in this category are meant for delineating the details
from image to a map on the same scale or different scale. These devices employ the means
for simultaneous viewing of both the image and the map. There are following three types of
equipments which are commonly used for mapping i.e. HME, LFOE, PROCOM and light
tables. First two types come under the optical projection types instruments. The schematic
presentation if interpretation process is shown in figure 10.

High magnification enlarger (HME):

HME is developed at SAC is a versatile aid for visual interpretation of remotely sensed data
in the form of transparencies. i.e. B/W or FCC diapositives. Enlargements upto 20 times are
possible in this instrument thus enabling a 1:1million dia-positives such as LANDSAT TM
transparency to be enlarged up to the scale of 1:50 000 corresponding to SOI topographic
sheets. Even high magnifications have also been attempted with this equipment comparison.
Projection of the image is carried out on a table attached to the equipment on which a map can
be fixed for registration with image and also a tracing film for the preparation of a thematic
map.
Large format optical enlarger (LFOE):
Large format optical enlarger has also been developed at SAC. It is used for two and four times
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enlargement of 240mm diapstives.1:1M scale images such as LANDSAT TM and MSS data
can be enlarged upto the scale of 1:250 000 scale corresponding to SOI topographical scale at
this scale. IRS LISS II images at 1:500 000 scale can be enlarged to a scale of 1:250 000 using
a LFOE having capability of two times enlargements. It can also project multi-spectral images
in 70 mm format for easy comparison.

Light tables: In addition to the instruments used for optical projection an interpretation aid
used for delineation of features from hardcopy paper prints are light tables. Interpretation
corresponding to the scale of paper print can be carried out. Handling of images for
interpretation is relatively easier using light tables.

Fig.10: Schematic Presentation of the Interpretation Process.

5. Techniques of Photographic/Image Interpretation

2.1 Collateral Material
A review of all existing source material that pertains to a given area, process, type of facility
or object, can aid in the interpretation process. The use of collateral material may also result
in a better definition of the scope, objectives and problems associated with a given project.
Also called "ancillary data", collateral material may come in the form of text, tables, maps,
graphs, or image metadata. Census data, a map or description of the flora of a given area, a
land use map, meteorological statistics, or agricultural crop reports can all be used in support
of a given interpretation. Basically, collateral material represents data/information that an
interpreter may use to aid in the interpretation process. Material contained within a Geographic
Information System (GIS) that is used to assist an interpreter in an analysis task can be
considered collateral data. Two classes of collateral materials deserve special mention:
interpretation keys and field verification.
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2.2 Interpretation Keys
An interpretation key is a set of guidelines used to assist interpreters in rapidly identifying
features. Determination of the type of key and the method of presentation to be employed will
depend upon,
a) The number of objects or conditions to be identified; and,
b) The variability typically encountered within each class of features or objects within the
key

Some authors say that as a general rule, keys are more easily constructed and used for the
identification of man-made objects and features than for natural vegetation and landforms.
For analysis of natural features, training and field experience are often essential to achieve
consistent results. Basically, an interpretation key helps the interpreter organize the
information present in image form and guides him/her to the correct identification of
unknown objects. Keys can be used in conjunction with any type of remotely sensed data.
Such keys can differ from those employed in other disciplines in that they can consist largely
of illustrations, e.g. landforms, industrial facilities, military installations. Many types of keys
are already available, if you can find or get your hands on them. This can often be very difficult
and a reason why people develop their own keys. Depending upon the manner in which the
diagnostic features are organized, two types of keys are generally recognized. 1) Selective
keys and 2) Elimination keys. Selective keys are arranged in such a way that an interpreter
simply selects that example that most closely corresponds to the object they are trying to
identify, e.g. industries, landforms etc. Elimination Keys are arranged so that the interpreter
follows a precise step-wise process that leads to the elimination of all items except the one(s)
that they are is trying to identify. Dichotomous keys are essentially a class of elimination key.
Most interpreters prefer to use elimination keys in their analyses (Colwell, 1997; Olson, 1960).

2.3 Field Verification

Field verification can be considered as form of collateral material because it is typically
conducted to assist in the analysis process. Essentially, this is the process of familiarizing the
interpreter with the area or type of feature. This type of verification is done prior to the
interpretation to develop a visual "signature" of how the feature(s) of interest appear on the
ground. After an interpretation is made field verification can be conducted to verify
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accuracy. The nature, amount, timing, method of acquisition, and data integration procedures
should be carefully thought out.
Interpreting Optical Remote Sensing Images
Four main types of information contained in an optical image are often utilized for image interpretation:
• Radiometric Information (i.e. brightness, intensity, tone),
• Spectral Information (i.e. colour, hue),
• Textural Information,
• Geometric and Contextual Information.

Panchromatic Images
A panchromatic image consists of only one band. It is usually displayed as a grey scale image, i.e. the
displayed brightness of a particular pixel is proportional to the pixel digital number which is related to the
intensity of solar radiation reflected by the targets in the pixel and detected by the detector. Thus, a
panchromatic image may be similarly interpreted as a black-and-white aerial photograph of the area. The
Radiometric Information is the main information type utilized in the interpretation.

A panchromatic image extracted from a SPOT panchromatic scene at a ground resolution of 10 m. The ground coverage
is about 6.5 km (width) by 5.5 km (height). The urban area at the bottom left and a clearing near the top of the image
have high reflected intensity, while the vegetated areas on the right part of the image are generally dark. Roads and
blocks of buildings in the urban area are visible. A river flowing through the vegetated area, cutting across the top right
comer of the image can be seen. The river appears bright due to sediments while the sea at the bottom edge of the image
appeal's dark.

Multispectral Images
A multispectral image consists of several bands of data. For visual display, each band of the image may be
displayed one band at a time as a grey scale image, or in combination of three bands at a time as a colour
composite image. Interpretation of a multispectral colour composite image will require the knowledge of
the spectral reflectance signature of the targets in the scene. In this case, the spectral information content
of the image is utilized in the interpretation.
The following three images show the three bands of a multispectral image extracted from a SPOT
multispectral scene at a ground resolution of 20 m. The area covered is the same as that shown in the
above panchromatic image. Note that both the XS1 (green) and XS2 (red) bands look almost identical to
the panchromatic image shown above. In contrast, the vegetated areas now appear bright in the XS3 (near
infrared) band due to high reflectance of leaves in the near infrared wavelength region. Several shades of
grey can be identified for the vegetated areas, corresponding to different types of vegetation. Water mass
(both the river and the sea) appear dark in the XS3 (near IR) band.

Colour Composite Images

In displaying a colour composite image, three primary colours (red, green and blue) are used. When
these three colours are combined in various proportions, they produce different colours in the visible
spectrum. Associating each spectral band (not necessarily a visible band) to a separate primary colour
results in a colour composite image.
True Colour Composite
If a multispectral image consists of the three visual primary colour bands (red, green, blue), the three
bands may be combined to produce a "true colour" image. For example, the bands 3 (red band), 2 (green
band) and 1 (blue band) of a LANDSAT TM image or an IKQNQS multispectral image can be assigned
respectively to the R, G, and B colours for display. In this way, the colours of the resulting colour
composite image resemble closely what would be observed by the human eyes.

False Colour Composite

The display colour assignment for any band of a multispectral image can be done in an entirely arbitrary
manner. In this case, the colour of a target in the displayed image does not have any resemblance to its
actual colour. The resulting product is known as a false colour composite image. There are many possible
schemes of producing false colour composite images. However, some scheme may be more suitable for
detecting certain objects in the image.
A very common false colour composite scheme for displaying a SPOT multispectral image is shown
below:
R = XS3 (NIR band) G
= XS2 (red band) B =
XS1(green band)
This false colour composite scheme allows vegetation to be detected readily in the image. In this type of
false colour composite images, vegetation appears in different shades of red depending on the types and
conditions of the vegetation, since it has a high reflectance in the NIR band (as shown in the graph of
spectral reflectance signature).
Clear water appears dark-bluish (higher green band reflectance), while turbid water appears cyan (higher
red reflectance due to sediments) compared to clear water. Bare soils, roads and buildings may appear in
various shades of blue, yellow or grey, depending on their composition.
Another common false colour composite scheme for displaying an optical image with a short-wave
infrared (SWIR) band is shown below:
 R = SWIR band (SPOT4 band 4, Landsat TM band 5)
G = NIR band (SPOT4 band 3, Landsat TM band 4)
B = Red band (SPOT4 band 2, Landsat TM band 3)

An example of this false colour composite display is shown below for a SPOT 4 image

Natural Colour Composite

For optical images lacking one or more of the three visual primary colour bands (i.e. red, green and blue),
the spectral bands (some of which may not be in the visible region) may be combined in such a way that
the appearance of the displayed image resembles a visible colour photograph, i.e. vegetation in green,
water in blue, soil in brown or grey, etc. Many people refer to this composite as a "true colour" composite.
However, this term is misleading since in many instances the colours are only simulated to look similar to
the "true" colours of the targets. The term "natural colour" is preferred.
The SPOT HRV multispectral sensor does not have a blue band. The three bands, XS1, XS2 and XS3
correspond to the green, red, and NIR bands respectively. But a reasonably good natural colour composite
can be produced by the following combination of the spectral bands:
R = XS2
G = (3 XS1 + XS3)/4
B = (3 XS1 - XS3)/4
where R, G and B are the display colour channels.

Textural Information
Texture is an important aid in visual image interpretation, especially for high spatial resolution imagery.
An example is shown below. It is also possible to characterize the textural features numerically, and
algorithms for computer-aided automatic descrimination of different textures in an image are available.
This is an IKONOS 1-m resolution pan- sharpened color image of an oil palm plantation. The image is
300 m across. Even though the general colour is green throughout, three distinct land cover types can be
identified from the image texture. The triangular patch at the bottom left comer is the oil palm plantation
with matured palm trees. Individual trees can be seen. The predominant texture is the regular pattern
formed by the tree crowns. Near to the top of the image, the trees are closer together, and the tree
canopies merge together, forming another distinctive textural pattern. This area is probably inhibated by
shrubs or abandoned trees with tall undergrowths and shrubs in between the trees. At the bottom right
comer, colour is more homogeneous, indicating that it is probably an open field with short grass

Geometric and Contexture Information

Using geometric and contextual features for image interpretation requires some a-priori information about
the area of interest. The "interpretational keys" commonly employed are: shape, size, pattern, location, and
association with other familiar features.