ST JOSEPH UNIVERSITY IN TANZANIA

BASICS CONCEPTS OF COMPUTERS NOTES

FOR BASIC TECHNICIAN CERTIFICATE IN
COMPUTER ENGINEERING (NTA LEVEL 4)

PREPARED BY: MR JAMES KIBONA

6.1.1 (a) Define Computers

What is computer?

 A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data.

It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a
computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web. You can also use it
to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.
 A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations based
on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It has the ability to accept data
(input), process it, and then produce outputs.
 A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it
with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output.
 Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information.

The term computer is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means
to calculate or programmable machine. Computer cannot do anything without a Program. It represents
the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. The Word ‘Computer’ usually refers to the Center
Processor Unit plus Internal memory.

Block Diagram of Computer and Explain its Various Components.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know
that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and
performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be
fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore
the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the
primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for
storing data and instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.

• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then
sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly
the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the
computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the
computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes
care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

Functional Units

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task
between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its
operation. They are:-

o Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

o Control Unit (CU)
o Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations
performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is
transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to
storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things
are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various operations using time
signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a
switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates
the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call
CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all
sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling
the operations.

Basic characteristics about computer are:

 Speed

As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we
take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.

 Accuracy

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the
same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7. Determined on the basis of design of computer, the
errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

 Diligence

A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human
being in routine type of work

 Versatility

It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to
prepare electric bills.

 Power of Remembering

Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be
stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon
you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
 No IQ

Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It
performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you
want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

 No Feeling

It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get
tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

 Storage

The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also
store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your
computer and can be carried to other computers.

Advantages of computer

 Multitasking

Multitasking is one of the major advantage of computer. Person can perform multiple
task, multiple operation, calculate numerical problems within few seconds. Computer
can perform trillion of instructions per second.

 Speed

Now computer is not just a calculating device. Now a day’s computer has very important
role in human life. One of the main advantages of computer is its incredible speed,
which helps human to complete their task in few seconds. All the operations can be
performed very fast just because of its speed elsewise it takes a long time to perform
the task.

 Cost/ Stores huge amount of data

It is a low cost solution. Person can save huge data within a low budget.
Centralized database of storing information is the major advantage that can reduce cost.

 Accuracy

One of the root advantage of computer is that can perform not only calculations but
also with accuracy.
  Data Security

Protecting digital data is known as data security. Computer provide security from
destructive forces and from unwanted action from unauthorized users like cyber attack
or access attack.

Disadvantage of Computer

 Virus and hacking attacks

Virus is a worm and hacking is simply an unauthorized access over computer for some
illicit purpose. Virus is being transferred from email attachment, viewing an infected
website advertisement, through removable device like USB etc. once virus is transferred
in host computer it can infect file, overwrite the file etc.

 Online Cyber Crimes

Online cyber-crime means computer and network may have used in order to commit
crime. Cyberstalking and Identity theft are the points which comes under online cyber-
crimes. For example: one may get the access of the access to your shopping account like
amazon account now that person will be able to know your personal details like debit
card or credit card number which can be than misused.

 Reduction in employment opportunity

Mainly past generation was not used of the computer or they have the knowledge of
computer they faced a big problem when computer came in field. As we have seen in
banking sector senior bank employees faced this problem when computer came to the
banking sector.

6.1.1 (b) Explain the history of computers.

History of Computers

The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones as
counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices were
developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are described
below;

 Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.It was a wooden rack
which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by the abacus
 operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some
countries like China, Russia and Japan.

 Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a
steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

 Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem
and storing information as a permanent memory.
 Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical
tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or
information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the
Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business Machine
(IBM) in 1924.

 Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog
device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to
perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.
Uses of Computer

Education

Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to make sense.

Health and Medicine

Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information can now be
digitized. Software is now able to computer the risk of a disease. Mental health researchers are using
computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of psychotherapy.

Science

Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a “collaboratory”,
an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over the world can work easily
together even at a distance.

Business

Business clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness. Some areas of
business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading,
etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better educated and more knowledgeable about their
customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer technology.
Recreation and Entertainment

Our entertainment and pleasure-time have also been affected by computerization. For example:
• In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special effects and even
imaginary characters can play a part in making movies, videos, and commercials.
• In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for athletes, and
suggest game plan strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.

Government

Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control and law enforcement
activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting, Education, Aviation and many
others.

Defence

• Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the incoming
target to destroy them.
• Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational Awareness)
and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.

Sports

In today’s technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every activity.

Recording Information

Official statistics keepers and some scouts use computers to record statistics, take notes and chat online
while attending and working at a sports event.

Analyzing Movements

The best athletes pay close attention to detail. Computers can slow recorded video and allow people to
study their specific movements to try to improve their tendencies and repair poor habits.

Writers

Many sportswriters attend several sporting events a week, and they take their computers with them to
write during the game or shortly after while their thoughts are fresh in their mind.

Scoreboard

While some scoreboards are manually updated, most professional sports venues have very modern
scoreboards that are programmed to update statistics and information immediately after the
information is entered into the computer.
Safety

Computers have aided in the design of safety equipment in sports such as football helmets to shoes to
mouth guards

6.1.1 (c) Explain the key milestones in the development of computers

Computer Generations

The generation of computers is based on when major technological changes occur within the computer,
like the employment of the microprocessor, vacuum tubes, and transistors. The primary generation of
this complex system began about 1940, and there are five generations of the computer till 2020.

First-generation (1940 - 1956)

The first electronic computer used vacuum tubes as a serious piece of technology that was ENIAC, which
stands for Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator, invented by J.W.Mauchy and J.P.Eckert. From
1940 through 1956, vacuum tubes were widely employed in computers. The first-generation computers
were very large in size and took up much space in the room because vacuum tubes were larger
components used in the computers. Even some of the first-generation computers were such large in
size; they took up an entire room. It weighed more than 30 tons and included 70,000 resistors, 10,000
capacitors, additionally as approximately 20,000 vacuum tubes. The below picture is of the vacuum
tubes. Some samples of the primary generation of computers are given below:

o UNIVAC

o IBM-701

o ENIAC

o EDVAC

o IBM-650
Advantages of the first-generation computer

1. These computers were in no time in terms of calculating. They might calculate in milliseconds.

2. Vacuum tubes are the electronic components available at that time, which were used by these
computers.

Disadvantages of the first-generation computer

1. These computers' weight was about 30 tones and took up a lot of space as they were very big in
size.

2. These computers were very costly and based on vacuum tubes.

3. Due to the presence of magnetic drums, they were only able to store a small amount of
information.

4. As the first generation of computers were used vacuum tubes, which need a large cooling
system.

5. They consumed a large amount of energy and had less work efficiency.

6. They needed punch cards to give input and had limited programming capabilities.

Second generation (1956 - 1963)

Instead of vacuum tubes, the second generation of computers was supported transistors. From 1956
through 1963, transistors were widely utilized within the second generation of computers. As compared
to the primary generation of computers, these computers were small in size because they used
transistors in these generations of computers that were smaller than vacuum tubes. Also, in terms of
speed, the second generation of computers was faster. And they were cheaper to create. In 1956,
computer TX-0 was introduced, which was the primary computer that used transistors. Some samples of
the second generation of computers are given below:

o CDC 3600

o Honeywell 400

o UNIVAC 1108

o IBM 7094

o CDC 1604, and many more

Advantages of the second generation of computers

1. The dimensions of the electron component decreased thanks to the existence of transistors
rather than vacuum tubes. Hence, the scale of those computers was small in size as compared to
the previous generation of computers.

2. These computers consumed less energy and did not produce the maximum amount of heat
because of the first generation of computers.

3. In these computers, punch cards and Assembly language were used to give input.

4. As compared to the first generation, it had better portability and low cost.

5. Furthermore, these computers were faster in speed as could calculate data in microseconds.

Disadvantages of the second generation of computers

1. It required a cooling system and constant maintenance.

 2. Also, these computers were used only for a particular objective.

Third generation (1964 - 1971)

The third generation of computers was supported Integrated circuits. In 1958-1959, Jack Kilby and
Robert Noyce invented the IC (Integrated circuit), which was a signal component that could have a
number of transistors. The utilization of Integrated circuits within the computers made them faster and
helped reduce the scale of computers as compared to second-generation computers.

In the mid to late 1960s, almost all computers have used Integrated circuits. Although many people
considered the time period of the third-generation computer is from 1964 to 1971. Today's computers
are still using Integrated circuits. Below, some examples of the third generation of computers are given:

o IBM 370

o PDP-8

o ICL 2900

o IBM 360

o PDP-11, and many more

Advantages of the third generation of computers

1. As compared to the second-generation computer, these computers were cheaper in cost.

2. This generation's computers used Integrated circuits that made them small in size. Also, they
were reliable and faster in speed.

3. The use of an Integrated circuit was not only beneficial for reducing the size of the computer; it
also enhances the performance of the computer comparing the second-generation computer.

4. The third generation of computers introduced a big storage capacity.

5. In these computers, keyboard and mouse were used to give the input rather than punch cards.
 6. These generation computers were much fast in terms of calculation; they decrease the
computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.

7. Furthermore, for better performance, these computers used operating systems and used
multiple programming and the concept of time-sharing.

Disadvantages of the third generation of computers

1. Air conditioning was required by these computers.

2. The manufacturing of IC chips required a highly sophisticated technology; also, IC chips are not
easy to maintain.

Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)

The Microprocessor, commonly called a CPU (Central Processing Unit), was used by the fourth
generation of computers. A microprocessor is used in a computer that led to makes a computer more
powerful and small in size as well as fits easily on a desk. Also, microprocessors, along with integrated
circuits, helped to introduce the laptop. For providing users more comfort, GUI (Graphics User Interface)
technology was exploited. The IBM 5100, Altair 8800, Micral, and some others are older computers that
used a microprocessor. Although the fourth generation is considered to have ended in 2010, in modern
times, the microprocessor is still in use in computers. The below is of the microprocessor. Some
examples of the fourth-generation computers are given below:

o STAR 1000

o PUP 11

o IBM 4341

o DEC 10

Advantages of the fourth generation of computers

1. The first advantage of this generation computer is that the size gets reduced and fastest in
computation, comparing to the previous generation of computer.

2. Its heat generated is negligible and required less maintenance.

 3. In these types of computers, all kinds of high-level language can be used.

Disadvantages of the fourth generation of computers

1. The fabrication and design of the microprocessor are not simple.

2. In many cases, air conditioning is needed due to the occurrence of Integrated circuits.

3. For making the Integrated circuit, advanced technology is required.

Fifth-generation (2010 to present)

The fifth generation of computers is predicated on artificial intelligence. AI is an advanced technology

that contains various possible applications all over the world. The primary purpose of this generation of
computers is to make a device more capable of self-organization and learning, including could respond
to natural language input. The ten million electronic components have consisted of the production of a
microprocessor as this generation is based on Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI). Although AI made
computers more powerful, there is still a need for some improvement in the computer.

IBM's Watson is a common example of computers used AI, which was featured as a contestant on the
TV show Jeopardy.Microsoft's Cortana on Windows 8 and Windows 10 computers and. Apple's Siri on
the iPhone are some other examples of computers that used AI. Furthermore, AI is also used in a search
engine like Google to process user searches. Some more examples are:

o UltraBook

o Chromebook

o Desktop

o Laptop

o NoteBook

Advantages of the fifth generation of computers

1. It has unique features and is available in several sizes.

2. It is more reliable and has the ability to work much faster.

 3. It offers computers that have a more friendly UI (User Interface), including multimedia features.

Disadvantages of the fifth generation of computers

1. In these computers, very low-level languages are required.

2. They may be harmful in terms of making human brains doomed and dull.

6.1.1 (d) Explain current computer developments.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) centers on machine coding that mimics human and animal intelligence. AI
professionals develop algorithms and program machines to perform humanlike tasks. Already
ubiquitous, AI helps detect credit card fraud, identify disease outbreaks, and optimize satellite
navigation.

Edge Computing

In contrast to cloud computing, where data is processed and stored far away from the end user in large
data centers, edge computing puts computer data at “the edge,” close to the end user. Experts do not
expect the cloud to disappear completely, but rather work in tandem with edge computing as it brings
processing to users, streamlining anything from factory production to self-driving car response.

Technology like autonomous cars, video conferencing, and augmented reality all benefit from edge
computing. For example, when an autonomous car makes a split-second decision to brake and avoid a
collision, an on-board computer system — edge computing — eliminates the delay of waiting for a
server in the cloud to respond.

Quantum Computing

Quantum computing uses powerful computers to solve problems at the atomic and subatomic levels.
Unlike classic computers, which perform calculations and store data in binary code, quantum computers
use quantum bits, also known as qubits. This allows quantum computers to crunch numbers and solve
problems much more quickly than previously possible.

While large tech companies like Google and IBM make strides towards quantum computing advances,
the field remains in its infancy. Other fields that can benefit from quantum computing include banking,
transportation, and agriculture.

Researchers may use quantum computing to find the best truck delivery routes, determine the most
efficient flight schedule for an airport, or develop new medicines quickly and cheaply. Scientists see
promise in quantum computing to develop sustainable technologies and solve environmental problems.
Robotics

The robotics field studies and develops robots in the pursuit of make life easier. A multidisciplinary field,
robotics incorporates computer science and electrical and mechanical engineering. Robotics uses
artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other computer science technologies.

Robots aim to increase safety and efficiency in industries like manufacturing, farming, and food
preparation. People use robotics technologies to manufacture cars, complete dangerous tasks like bomb
diffusion, and conduct complex surgeries.

Cyber security

Cyber security focuses on protecting computer systems and networks from cyberthreats and attacks. As
companies continue storing information on the cloud and conduct operations online, the need for
improved cyber security also grows.

Individuals, businesses, and governments experience significant financial losses due to cyber attacks. For
example, the ransom ware attacking the eastern U.S. in May 2021 cost the Colonial Pipeline about $5
million and inflated gas prices for consumers.

Most industries, including healthcare, financial institutions, and insurance, need better cyber security
technologies to protect their proprietary and customer data.

Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics professionals study, store, and analyze biological information. A multidisciplinary subfield
combining computer science and biology, bioinformatics looks for patterns in sequences of genetic
material like DNA, genes, RNA, and protein. Bioinformatics workers develop the methods and software
applications that accomplish these tasks.

The medical and pharmaceutical, industrial, environmental/government, and information technology

fields benefit significantly from bioinformatics computer science technologies. Bioinformatics helps
doctors in preventative and precision medicine detect diseases earlier to offer efficient targeted
treatment.

Assignment question (Assignment I)

Explain motivations for moving from electromechanical systems to electronics computing systems.

6.1.2 (a) Identify main parts of a computer

Computer components

Components of a computer system are the primary elements which make the functioning of an
electronic device smooth and faster. A computer device is made up of various elements which help
in its effective functioning and processing. There are five basic components which include:
 1. Input Unit

2. Output Unit

3. Memory Unit

4. Control Unit

5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit

• Input Unit

A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These commands can be given
using the input unit or the input devices.

For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the computer processes the
entered data and then displays the output of the same of the screen.

The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the information using
an input device, the processing units convert it into computer understandable languages and then the
final output is received by a human-understandable language.
 • Output Unit

When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts for the action performed and gives us a
result. This result is called output. There are various output devices connected to the computer. The
most basic of which is a monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is all
displayed on the monitor.

Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done within the mechanism
of a device.

For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin, amount to be withdrawn,
etc. and then the final money which the cash dispenser releases is our outcome. In this case, the cash
dispenser acts as an output unit.

• Memory Unit

When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the entered information immediately
gets saved in the memory unit of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Because of the presence of some
existing programming, the Memory Unit transmits the data further to the other parts of the CPU.

Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it is saved in the memory unit
before giving the output to the user.

• Control Unit

This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer device. It is one of the most
essential components of the computer system.

The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on for processing and once that
is done, receives the output and presents it to the user. It can be said to the centre of all processing
actions taking place inside a computer device.

Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals to execute the data and
then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control Unit.

• Arithmetic & Logical Unit

As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations are performed in the
Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.

It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making actions. The ALU comprises
circuits using which addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and other numerical based calculations
can be performed.
6.1.2 (b) define Hardware

Hardware

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer system,
including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software without using
hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional hardware
developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A common example of a hardware
upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total memory, and video card upgrade, where
the old video card is removed and replaced with the new one.

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1) Motherboard

The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a computer
except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for input
and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit board in a computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each other. It is
meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other components connect to it. Each
component that runs the computer or improves its performance is a part of the motherboard or
connected to it through a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a
specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:

CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard. It
facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or removed. Furthermore, it is
provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM
(Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the
motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for example,
you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then can install a new
video card in the computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR, CNR,
PCI, etc.
Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them. These
parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core. It
acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allow

allowss communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and
memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU, and
graphics controller.

USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.
comput

PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI devices
like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.

Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal

metal-oxide-semiconductor.
semiconductor. It is a memory that stores the
BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.
2) Monitor

A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text, images, etc., is
displayed. It comprises a screen circuit and the case which encloses this circuit. The monitor is also
known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:

1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Its
main components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, glass envelope,
fluorescent screen, and base.

2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to produce images
on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with capacitors and use active-matrix
technology, which allows pixels to retain their charge.

3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD monitor, which uses
cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has LED panels, each of which has lots
of LEDs to display the backlight.

4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high resolutions of
up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate, outstanding contrast ration, and
more.

3) Keyboard

It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text, characters,
and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with different sets of keys to enter
numbers, characters, and perform various other functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.

Types of Keyboards:

1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse

It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer screen's
cursor) in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select objects on a
computer's display screen. It is generally placed on a flat surface as we need to move it
smoothly to control the pointer. Types of Mouse: Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical
Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.
Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the
screen.
o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and execute a
program. You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double click it to open it.
o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.
o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object. During
hovering over an object, it displays information about the object without pressing any
button of the mouse.
o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or document.

Parts of a mouse:

o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.
o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to scroll
up and down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like AutoCAD.
o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.
o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor to
provide signals to the computer about the motion and location of the mouse.
6.1.2 (c) Explain Random access memory (RAM) and its functions

(d) Explain central processing unit (CPU) and its functions

(e) Explain primary and secondary storages and their functions.

Computer Memory

In computers, memory is the most essential component of the normal functioning of any system. The
computer system categorizes the memory for different purposes and uses.

Computer memory is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction temporarily or
permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in the form of bits. The
memory block is split into a small number of components, called cells. Each cell has a unique address to
store the data in memory, ranging from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the size of
computer memory is 64k words, the memory units have 64 * 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The
address of the memory's cells varies from 0 to 65535.

Why do we need a computer memory?

In the computer system, we need computer memory to store various types of data like text, images,
video, audio, documents, etc. We can retrieve it when the data is required. For example, when we write
and execute any computer program, it is initially stored in primary memory. If the processor does not
need particular items for a longer time, the program or data is automatically saved into the permanent
or secondary memory. Then the data is called from secondary memory to main memory and performs
the execution of codes.

Features of Memory

Following are the different features of the memory system that includes:

1. Location: It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a computer. The
internal memory is inbuilt in computer memory. It is also known as primary memory. the
example of primary memory are registers, cache and main memory. Whereas, external memory
is the separate storage device from the computer, such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.
2. Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity can vary in
external and internal memory. External devices' storage capacity is measured in terms of bytes,
whereas the internal memory is measured with bytes or words. The storage word length can
vary in bits, such as 8, 16 or 32 bits.
3. Access Methods: Memory can be accessed through four modes of memory.
o DMA: As the name specifies, Direct Memory Address (DMA) is a method that allows
input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data directly or from the main memory.
o Sequential Access Method: The sequential access method is used in a data storage
device to read stored data sequentially from the computer memory. Whereas, the data
received from random access memory (RAM) can be in any order.
o Random Access Method: It is a method used to randomly access data from memory.
This method is the opposite of SAM. For example, to go from A to Z in random access,
 we can directly jump to any specified location. In the Sequential method, we have to
follow all intervening from A to Z to rea
reach
ch at the particular memory location.
o Associative Access Method: It is a special type of memory that optimizes search
performance through defined data to directly access the stored information based on a
memory address.
4. Unit of transfer: As the name sugges
suggests,
ts, a unit of transfer measures the transfer rate of bits that
can be read or write in or out of the memory devices. The transfer rate of data can be different
in external and internal memory.
o Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to tthe he word size.
o External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the word length. It is
always greater than a word or may be referred to as blocks.
5. Performance: The performance of memory is majorly divided into three parts.
o Access Time: In random
andom access memory, it represents the total time taken by memory
devices to perform a read or write operation that an address is sent to memory.
o Memory Cycle Time: Total time required to access memory block and additional
required time before starting sec
second access.
o Transfer rate: It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory to or from
an external or internal memory device. Bit transfer can be different for different
external and internal devices.
6. Physical types: It defines the physical ttype
ype of memory used in a computer such as magnetic,
semiconductor, magneto-optical
optical and optical.
7. Organization: It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.
8. Physical characteristics: It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like volatile,
volat non-
volatile or non-erasable
erasable memory. Volatile memory is known as RAM, which requires power to
retain stored information, and if any power loss has occurred, stored data will be lost. Non-Non
volatile memory is a permanent storage memory that is used to ob obtain
tain any stored information,
even when the power is off. NonNon-erasable
erasable memory is a type of memory that cannot be erased
after the manufactured like ROM because at the time of manufactured ROM are programmed.

Classification of Memory

The following figure represents

resents the classification of memory:
Primary or Main Memory

Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that communicates directly
within the CPU

, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. Main memory is used to kept programs or data when the
processor is active to use them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first
loads instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor
starts execution. Accessing or executing of data from primary memory is faster because it has a cache or
register memory that provides faster response, and it is located closer to the CPU

. The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it is not saved when a
power failure occurs. It is costlier than secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as
compared to secondary memory.

The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM)

is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by the CPU. It is the hardware in a computer
device to temporarily store data, programs or program results. It is used to read/write data in memory
until the machine is working. It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs or the computer is
turned off, the information stored in RAM will be lost. All data stored in computer memory can be read
or accessed randomly at any time.
There are two types of RAM:

o SRAM

o DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the dynamic storage
of data in RAM. In DRAM, M, each cell carries one
one-bit
bit information. The cell is made up of two parts:
a capacitor and a transistor.. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small, requiring millions of
them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same
size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is
volatile. If the power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM

1. It requires continuously refreshed

efreshed to retain the data.

2. It is slower than SRAM

3. It holds a large amount of data

4. It is the combination of capacitor and transistor

5. It is less expensive as compared to SRAM

6. Less power consumption

SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data in the memory.
It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has a power supply.
However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.

Characteristics of Static Ram

1. It does not require to refresh.

2. It is faster than DRAM

3. It is expensive.

4. High power consumption

5. Longer life

6. Large size

7. Uses as a cache memory

SRAM DRAM

It is a Static Random-Access Memory. It is a Dynamic Random Access Memory.

The access time of SRAM is slow. The access time of DRAM is high.

It uses flip-flops to store each bit of information. It uses a capacitor to store each bit of information.

It does not require periodic refreshing to preserve the It requires periodically refreshing to preserve the
information. information.

It uses in cache memory. It is used in the main memory.

The cost of SRAM is expensive. The cost of DRAM is less expensive.

It has a complex structure. Its structure is simple.

It requires low power consumption. It requires more power consumption.

Advantages of RAM

o It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

o It requires less power to operate.

o Program loads much faster

o More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.

o Perform read and write operations.

o The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.

Disadvantages of RAM

o Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.

o Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.

o It is expensive than ROM

o It is unreliable as compared to ROM

o The Size of RAM is limited.

Functions

There are many basic and main functions of computer memory RAM, which are given below.

• Reading Files

This is also the work of RAM memory. Your computer hard disk stores large amounts of data.
And because of storing large amounts of data, the hard disk slowdown of your computer works.

Due to storing a large amount of data on a computer hard disk, if you have to retrieve a file,
then you have to search that file in your computer which takes a lot of time because all the data
on the hard disk is scattered.

When you search any data in the computer, then your computer's hard disk rotates at
thousands of rotations per minute, causing delays.To make this time work, your computer
system stores the first time of any data in the RAM to read the files from the drive.Computer
RAM reads and loads any data faster than a hard disk.

• Temporary Storage
 That program or files of the computer which have been used, then RAM saves the data in a
temporary way, which is the main functio
functionn of the computer RAM.RAM also stores the data that
is used the programs or files that are being used repeatedly in your computer system.

• Loading Applications

Loading a software application is also the main function of RAM.Any software or application
openss in the computer using Ram itself.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store information inside a chip. It is
a read-only
only memory that can only read stored information, data or programs, but we cannot write
w or
modify anything. A ROM contains some important instructions or program data that are required to
start or boot a computer. It is a non
non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be
lost even when the power is turned off or the sys
system is shut down.

Types of ROM

There are five types of Read Only Memory:

1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read
read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured
configured by the
integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturin
manufacturing.
g. Therefore, a program or
instruction stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.
 2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information or
program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the desired
content or program only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM burner device;
after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.

3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed only
once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no
power supply and can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we want to
erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass the ultraviolet light for 40
minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase
stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile
memory whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the
stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and the data erase one
byte at a time.

5. Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in small
units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer memory, and the
contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer
data between the computer and digital devices.

Advantages of ROM

1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even power is turned off.

2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.

3. Data can be stored permanently.

4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.

5. These cannot be changed accidently

6. It is cheaper than RAM.

7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.

8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.

Disadvantages of ROM

1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing data.
 2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.

3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high charge of ultraviolet light.

RAM Vs. ROM

RAM ROM

It is a Random-Access Memory. It is a Read Only Memory.

Read and write operations can be performed. Only Read operation can be performed.

Data can be lost in volatile memory when the Data cannot be lost in non-volatile memory when the
power supply is turned off. power supply is turned off.

It is a faster and expensive memory. It is a slower and less expensive memory.

Storage data requires to be refreshed in RAM. Storage data does not need to be refreshed in ROM.

The size of the chip is bigger than the ROM chip to The size of the chip is smaller than the RAM chip to store
store the data. the same amount of data.

Types of RAM: DRAM and SRAM Types of ROM: MROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM

Secondary memory

is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of data. Secondary memory is also known as
external memory that representing the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and
DVDs) on which the computer data and program can be saved on a long term basis. However, it is
cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary memory, secondary memory cannot be
accessed directly by the CPU. Instead of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM
(Random Access Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and update the data. Secondary
memory devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk and floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs
and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.

Features of Secondary Memory

o Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.

 o Store data cannot be lost due to non
non-volatile nature.

o It can store large

ge collections of different types, such as audio, video, pictures, text, software, etc.

o All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be lost because it is a permanent storage
area; even the power is turned off.

o It has various optical and magnetic memor

memories to store data.

Types of Secondary Memory

The following are the types of secondary memory devices:

Hard Disk

A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a nonnon-volatile

volatile disk that permanently stores
data, programs, and files, and cannot lo lose
se store data when the computer's power source is switched off.
Typically, it is located internally on computer's motherboard that stores and retrieves data using one or
more rigid fast rotating disk platters inside an air
air-sealed casing. It is a large storage
age device, found on
every computer or laptop for permanently storing installed software, music, text documentation,
videos, operating system, and data until the user did not delete.

Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible magnetic coating disks for
holding electronic data such as computer files. It is also known as Floppy Diskette that comes in three
sizes like 8 inches, 5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data of a floppy disk can be accessed through
the
he floppy disk drive. Furthermore, it is the only way through a new program installed on a computer or
backup of the information. However, it is the oldest type of portable storage device, which can store
data up to 1.44 MB. Since most programs were larger
larger,, that required multiple floppy diskettes to store
large amounts of data. Therefore, it is not used due to very low memory storage.

CD (Compact Disc)

is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device used to store various
data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back
Back-Up
Up file, and any other information useful to a computer. The
CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height, which can store approximately 783 MB of data size. It
uses laser light to read and write data from ththe CDs.
Types of CD

1. CD-ROM
ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): It is mainly used for bulk size mass like audio CDs,
software and computer games at the time of manufacture. Users can only read data, text,
music, videos from the disc, but they cannot modify o
or burnt it.

2. CD-RR (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of Compact Disc used to write once by the user;
after that, it cannot be modified or erased.

3. CD-RW
RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a rewritable CD disc, often used to write or delete the
stored data.

DVD Drive/Disc

DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital Video Display or Digital Versatile Disc.
Disc It has the
same size as a CD but can store a larger amount of data than a compact disc. It was developed
in 1995 by Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba and Philips four electronics companies. DVD drives are divided into
three types, such as DVD ROM (Read Only Memory), DVD R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or
Erasable). It can store multiple data formats like audio, videos, images, software, operating system,
sys etc.
The storing capacity of data in DVD is 4.7 GB to 17 GB.
Blu Ray Disc (BD)

Blu Ray is an Optical disc storage device used to store a large amount of data or high definition of video
recording and playing other media files. It uses laser technol
technology
ogy to read the stored data of the Blu-ray
Blu
Disk. It can store more data at a greater density as compared to CD/ DVD. For example, compact discs
allow us to store 700 MB of data, and in DVDs, it provides up to 8 GB of storage capacity, while Blu-ray
Blu
Discs provide
rovide 28 GB of space to store data.

Pen Drive

A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also known as a USB flash drive. It
is commonly used to store and transfer the data connected to a computer using a USB port. It does not
have any moveable part to store the data; it uses an integrated circuit chip that stores the data. It allows
the users to store and transfer data like audio, videos, images, etc. from one computer to any USB pen
drive. The storing capacity of pen drives fr
from 64 MB to 128 GB or more.
Cache Memory

It is a small-sized chip-based
based computer memory that lies between the CPU and the main memory. It is a
faster, high performance and temporary memory to enhance the performance of the CPU. It stores all
the data and instructions that are often used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the access time of data
from the main memory. It is faster than the main memory, and sometimes, it is also called CPU memory
because it is very close to the CPU chip. The following are the levels of cache memory.
 1. L1 Cache: The L1 cache is also known as the onboard, internal, or primary cache. It is built with
the help of the CPU. Its speed is very high, and the size of the L1 cache varies from 8 KB to 128
KB.

2. L2 Cache: It is also known as external or secondary cache, which requires fast access time to
store temporary data. It is built into a separate chip in a motherboard, not built into the CPU like
the L1 level. The size of the L2 cache may be 128 KB to 1 MB.

3. L3 Cache: L3 cache levels arare

e generally used with high performance and capacity of the
computer. It is built into a motherboard. Its speed is very slow, and the maximum size up to 8
MB.

Advantages of Cache Memory

1. Cache memory is the faster memory as compared to the main memory.

2. It stores
ores all data and instructions that are repeatedly used by the CPU for improving the
performance of a computer.

3. The access time of data is less than the main memory.

Disadvantage of Cache Memory

1. It is very costly as compared to the Main memory and the Seco

Secondary
ndary memory.

2. It has limited storage capacity.

Register Memory
The register memory is a temporary storage area for storing and transferring the data and the
instructions to a computer. It is the smallest and fastest memory of a computer. It is a part of computer
memory located in the CPU as the form of registers. The register memory is 16, 32 and 64 bits in size. It
temporarily stores data instructions and the address of the memory that is repeatedly used to provide
faster response to the CPU.

Primary Vs. Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

It is also known as temporary memory. It is also known as a permanent memory.

Data can be access directly by the processor or CPU. Data cannot be accessed directly by the I/O processor
or CPU.

Stored data can be a volatile or non-volatile memory. The nature of secondary memory is always non-volatile.

It is more costly than secondary memory. It is less costly than primary memory.

It is a faster memory. It is a slower memory.

It has limited storage capacity. It has a large storage capacity.

It required the power to retain the data in primary It does not require power to retain the data in
memory. secondary memory.

Examples of primary memory are RAM, ROM, Examples of secondary memory are CD, DVD, HDD,
Registers, EPROM, PROM and cache memory. magnetic tapes, flash disks, pen drive, etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 • CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).

• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

• Memory or Storage Unit

• Control Unit

• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other
units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the
primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

• It stores intermediate results of processing.

• It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.

• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.

• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

• It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

• Arithmetic Section

• Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.
Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

6.1.2 (f) Mention input/output devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

• Keyboard

• Mouse

• Joy Stick

• Light pen

• Track Ball

• Scanner

• Graphic Tablet

• Microphone

• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

• Optical Character Reader(OCR)

• Bar Code Reader

• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer.
The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys
provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are
also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.

Function Keys

3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the
top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.

Control keys
4
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
 Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm
size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used
to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

• Easy to use

• Not very expensive

• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a
stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket.
The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further
manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a
signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They
can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or
for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type
of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR
is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and
stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines).
Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld
scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to
the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is
used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

• Monitors

• Graphic Plotter

• Printer
Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as
the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most
screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

• Large in Size

• High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and
graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

• Impact Printers

• Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

• Very low consumable costs

 • Very noisy

• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

• Character printers

• Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern
of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 • Inexpensive

• Widely Used

• Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

• Slow Speed

• Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is
why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that
require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality

• Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

• Slower than DMP

• Noisy

• More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

• Drum Printer

• Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into
a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets
available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one
line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

• Very high speed

Disadvantages

• Very expensive

• Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

• Character fonts can easily be changed.

 • Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

• Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page
at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

• Laser Printers

• Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers

• They are not noisy

• High quality

• Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages

• Very high speed

• Very high quality output

• Good graphics quality

• Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

• Expensive

• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with
presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of
printing also.

Advantages

• High quality printing

• More reliable

Disadvantages

• Expensive as the cost per page is high

• Slow as compared to laser printer

6.1.2 (g) Explain system interconnection

System interconnection

Is the direct connection of two or mo

more systems for the purpose of sharing data and other information
resources.

A system interconnection has three basic components: two systems (System A and System B) and the
mechanism by which they are joine
joined (the “pipe” through which data is made available, exchanged, or
passed one-way only).

System Interconnection Life Cycle

The four phases of the interconnection life cycle are:

• Planning the interconnection: the participating organizations perform preliminary activities;

examine all relevant technical, security,, and administrative issues; and form an agreement
governing the management, operation, and use of the interconnection.

• Establishing the interconnection: the organizations develop and execute a plan for establishing
the interconnection, including implementing or configuring appropriate security controls.
controls

• Maintaining the interconnection: the organizations actively maintain the interconnection after
it is established to ensure that it operates properly and securely.

• Disconnecting the interconnection: one or both organizations may choose to terminate

the interconnection.. The termination should be conducted in a planned manner to avoid
disrupting the other party’s system.. In response to an emergency, however, one or both
organizations may decide to terminate the interconnection immediately.

6.1.2 (h) Explain limitations of early computers

Limitations of Computer :

Computer cannot operate without the instructions given by humans. It is programmed to work
effectively, fast and accurately. Computer cannot think by itself and does not have common sense. It is
totally dependent on humans.

• Depend on users input.

 • Computer have no imagination.

• Cannot detect error in logic.

• Only expert user can work on it.

• Cannot take its own decisions.

Some of the limitations of computer are as follows:

No Self-Intelligence

Computer does not have intelligence of its own to complete the tasks. They give wrong output if the
input given by humans are wrong. It works according to the instructions given to it by the user.

No Thinking and Decision Making Power

The computer cannot think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows that computer can think.
But still this concept is dependent on set of instructions. It cannot take any decision. It can only perform
the tasks that are instructed by the users.

No Feeling

Lack of feeling is another limitation of computer. A computer cannot feel like us. It does not have
emotions, feelings, knowledge etc. It does not get tired and keep on doing its tasks. It can do very risky
works which are not capable by human beings.

No Learning Power

Computer has no learning power. Computer cannot perform the tasks without instructions. It cannot
read the same instructions time and again. Once the instructions is given it will work for one time. It can
solve the problems but it cannot learn the problems. It can only work according to the instructions
given.

More, limitation of computer

Computer has done this and that. Actually this is not the computer which has done this but the user.
Despite its various features, a computer does have the following limitations:

a. No Self Intelligence
Today, a computer is able to do a work which is impossible for man. Computers are used to do risky and
dangerous work and where sharp actually is needed. But it does not have any intelligence of its own. It
works according to the instruction only.
b. No Decision-Making power
Computer cannot take any decision of its own. It does only those tasks which are already instructed to it.

c. No learning power
Computer has no learning power. Once you give instructions to a computer how to perform a task, the
very task is cannot perform if you do not give it any instructions for the next time. For example, when
you are taught how to solve a problem and it same type of problem is given to you to solve, then you
can do it because you have learned how to solve the problem.

6.1.2 (i) Explain mobile computing

Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing refers a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer
or any other wireless enabled device. It is free from having a connection with a fixed physical link. It
facilitates the users to move from one physical location to another during communication.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

o Mobile Communication

o Mobile Hardware

o Mobile Software

Applications of Mobile Computing

Following is a list of some significant fields in which mobile computing is generally applied:

o Web or Internet access.

o Global Position System (GPS).

o Emergency services.

o Entertainment services.

o Educational services.

6.1.3 (a) Differentiate classes of computers

Types of Computer

We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

 o Analogue Computer

o Digital Computer

o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are used
where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into
numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render
output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of
analogue computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous representation
of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.

o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers for
converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.

o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It
provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was developed
to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform the calculation,
the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.

o Differential Analyzers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs

integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.

o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions. Its
height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and the solar
and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as per the current
season.

o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals flow through
capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical interaction of
components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates the appropriate
displays.
2) Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the
raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs
stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including
smart phones that we use at home or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you need
it.

o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.

o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without
making any changes in hardware

o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.

o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.

o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.

o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature, humidity,
and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous
and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before processing. So,
it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For
example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity
and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue subsystem.

o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.

o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.

o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount of
data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was developed
by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.

o It produces excellent results in animations.

o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.

o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in
NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any type of
simple and logical data.

o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.

o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For example,
in insurance companies.

o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and bitcoin.

o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in brain
injuries, strokes, etc.

o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring the
solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.

o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in
the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They
can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They
can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires
integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking
sector.

o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.

o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.

o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.

o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any
error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.

o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order to
contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease
updates.

o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defence.

o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to
their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and colleges.

o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200
users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such as billing,
accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

 o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.

o It is very fast compared to its size.

o It remains charged for a long time.

o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:

o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two
primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the
process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made accordingly.

o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and share
data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients and
customers respectively.

o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger systems by
serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or computer.

4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has a
faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a
specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation,
music workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or professional
use.

o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.

o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used as a
workstation.

o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or computers.

o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors before
they affect the system's performance.
 o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives to store
or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple drives to
process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other starts functioning.

o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.

o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work while
processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer

Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is designed

for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit
and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for
personal work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:

o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.

o A limited number of software can be used.

o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.

o It is less expansive and easy to use.

o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.

o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.

o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

Assignment 2:

1. 6.1.3 (b) Differentiate features of computers of computers for personal use and corporate or
company use.
2. 6.1.3 (c) Describe mobile devices as computing device
3. 6.1.3 (d) Describe methods of classifying computers
4. 6.1.4 (a) Outline principles of computer operations
5. 6.1.4 (e) Explain the differences between computers and peripheral devices
6.1.4 (b) Describe the concepts of binary digits

Number Systems

The language we use to communicate with each other is comprised of words and characters. We
understand numbers, characters and words. But this type of data is not suitable for computers.
Computers only understand the numbers.

So, when we enter data, the data is converted into electronic pulse. Each pulse is identified as code and
the code is converted into numeric format by ASCII. It gives each number, character and symbol a
numeric value (number) that a computer understands. So to understand the language of computers,
one must be familiar with the number systems.

The Number Systems used in computers are:

o Binary number system

o Octal number system

o Decimal number system

o Hexadecimal number system

Binary number system

It has only two digits '0' and '1' so its base is 2. Accordingly, In this number system, there are only two
types of electronic pulses; absence of electronic pulse which represents '0'and presence of electronic
pulse which represents '1'. Each digit is called a bit. A group of four bits (1101) is called a nibble and
group of eight bits (11001010) is called a byte. The position of each digit in a binary number represents a
specific power of the base (2) of the number system.

Octal number system

It has eight digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) so its base is 8. Each digit in an octal number represents a specific
power of its base (8). As there are only eight digits, three bits (23=8) of binary number system can
convert any octal number into binary number. This number system is also used to shorten long binary
numbers. The three binary digits can be represented with a single octal digit.

Decimal number system

This number system has ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) so its base is 10. In this number system, the
maximum value of a digit is 9 and the minimum value of a digit is 0. The position of each digit in decimal
number represents a specific power of the base (10) of the number system. This number system is
widely used in our day to day life. It can represent any numeric value.
Hexadecimal number system

This number system has 16 digits that ranges from 0 to 9 and A to F. So, its base is 16. The A to F
alphabets represent 10 to 15 decimal numbers. The position of each digit in a hexadecimal number
represents a specific power of base (16) of the number system. As there are only sixteen digits, four bits
(24=16) of binary number system can convert any hexadecimal number into binary number. It is also
known as alphanumeric number system as it uses both numeric digits and alphabets.

6.1.4 (c) Explain the analogue and digital signals

What is Signal?

A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying data from one system or
network to another. The signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon.A signal can
also be defined as an observable change in quality such as quantity. There are two main types of signals:
1. Analog signal and

2. Digital signal.

Analog Signal

Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity represents another time-based
variable. These kind of signals works with physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake,
frequency, volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc.

Digital Signal

A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate values at any point in
time. It can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal represents a real number
within a constant range of values.
KEY DIFFERENCES:

• An analog signal is a continuous signal whereas Digital signals are time separated signals.

• Analog signal is denoted by sine waves while It is denoted by square waves

• Analog signal uses a continuous range of values that help you to represent information on the
other hand digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to represent information.

• Comparing Digital vs Analog signals, The analog signal bandwidth is low while the bandwidth of
the digital signal is high.

• Analog instruments give considerable observational errors whereas Digital instruments never
cause any kind of observational errors.

• Analog hardware never offers flexible implementation, but Digital hardware offers flexibility in
implementation.

• Comparing Analog vs Digital signal, Analog signals are suited for audio and video transmission
while Digital signals are suited for Computing and digital electronics.

6.1.4 (d) Describe the conversation of characters into binary digits

Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new base
number.

Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the leŌ) of the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base number.

Example

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first
remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most
Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as decimal
for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

hortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulƟng binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 1010

THE END