JUNIOR CERTIFICATE

CHEMISTRY

Form 1
Study notes
Table of Contents
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY ............................................................................... 8
Meaning of chemistry .................................................................................................................... 8
Branches of chemistry .................................................................................................................... 8
Physical chemistry .................................................................................................................................... 8
Environmental chemistry ......................................................................................................................... 8
Analytical chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 8
Industrial chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 8
Organic chemistry .................................................................................................................................... 8
Inorganic chemistry .................................................................................................................................. 8
Importance of chemistry in everyday life ...................................................................................... 8
Areas where chemistry is applied .................................................................................................. 9
Careers in chemistry and their importance .................................................................................... 9
Medicine and nursing............................................................................................................................... 9
Pharmacist ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Food chemist ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Teacher chemist ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Environmental chemist .......................................................................................................................... 10
Laboratory .................................................................................................................................... 10
Safety rules in the laboratory ....................................................................................................... 10
Common laboratory apparatus ..................................................................................................... 11
Protective equipment in the laboratory ........................................................................................ 11
Hazard symbols ............................................................................................................................ 11
The SI unit system of measurement ............................................................................................. 12
Basic units .................................................................................................................................... 12
Derived units ................................................................................................................................ 13
SI prefixes for units of measurements.......................................................................................... 13
Measuring physical quantities ...................................................................................................... 13
Measuring mass............................................................................................................................ 13
How to use the triple beam balance ............................................................................................. 14
Measuring volume........................................................................................................................ 15
Measuring temperature ................................................................................................................ 15
Measuring time ............................................................................................................................ 16
Page 2 of 67
 Scientific method of investigation ............................................................................................... 17
Steps of scientific inquiry ............................................................................................................ 17
TOPIC 2: ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICAL SKILLS IN CHEMISTRY ....................................... 18
Expressing numbers in standard form .......................................................................................... 18
Expressing very big numbers in standard notation ...................................................................... 18
Expressing very small numbers in standard form ........................................................................ 19
Significant figures ........................................................................................................................ 19
Guidelines for writing significant figures .................................................................................... 19
Expressing numerical results to correct number of significant Figures ....................................... 20
Accuracy and precision ................................................................................................................ 20
Graphs .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Types of graphs ............................................................................................................................ 21
a. Line graphs ......................................................................................................................................... 21
b. Bar graphs .......................................................................................................................................... 21
c. Pie charts ............................................................................................................................................ 22
TOPIC 3: COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER ........................................... 23
Definition of matter ...................................................................................................................... 23
States of matter............................................................................................................................. 23
Properties of the three states of matter ......................................................................................... 23
1. Solids .................................................................................................................................................. 23
2. Liquids ............................................................................................................................................... 23
3. Gases .................................................................................................................................................. 24
The particulate nature of matter ................................................................................................... 24
Atom............................................................................................................................................. 24
Evidence of the particulate nature of matter ................................................................................ 24
Diffusion ................................................................................................................................................. 24
Investigating diffusions in liquids ................................................................................................ 25
Common examples of diffusion in everyday life ......................................................................... 26
Elements ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Examples of elements ............................................................................................................................ 26
Chemical symbols of atoms of elements .......................................................................................... 27
Rules for writing chemical symbols of elements ......................................................................... 27
Molecules ..................................................................................................................................... 28
Page 3 of 67
Types of molecules ....................................................................................................................... 28
a. Monoatomic molecules ................................................................................................................. 28
b. Diatomic molecules ........................................................................................................................ 28
c. Polyatomic molecules .................................................................................................................... 28
Using models or diagrams to illustrate formation of molecules .................................................. 29
Compounds .................................................................................................................................. 29
Differences between an element and a compound ....................................................................... 30
Chemical formulae of substances ................................................................................................ 30
Determining the type and number of atoms in the chemical formula of a given substance ........ 31
Pure substances and mixtures ...................................................................................................... 32
Types of mixtures ......................................................................................................................... 32
a. Homogeneous mixture .................................................................................................................. 32
b. Heterogenous mixture ................................................................................................................... 32
Solutions....................................................................................................................................... 33
Aqueous solution and non-aqueous solutions .............................................................................. 33
Types of solutions ........................................................................................................................ 33
a. Solid–in–solid ................................................................................................................................. 33
a. Liquid–in–liquid .............................................................................................................................. 33
b. Solid–in–liquid................................................................................................................................ 33
c. Gas–in–liquid ................................................................................................................................. 33
Saturated and unsaturated solutions ............................................................................................. 34
Ways of making a saturated solution unsaturated ........................................................................ 34
Ways of making unsaturated solution saturated ........................................................................... 34
Factors affecting solubility ........................................................................................................... 34
Temperature ........................................................................................................................................... 34
Size of particles ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Polarity ................................................................................................................................................... 34
Ways of increasing solubility of solutes in solvents .................................................................... 35
Methods of separating mixtures ................................................................................................... 35
a. Filtration ......................................................................................................................................... 35
b. Decantation .................................................................................................................................... 36
c. Evaporation .................................................................................................................................... 36
d. Distillation ...................................................................................................................................... 36

Page 4 of 67
 Separating ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water ............................................................. 38
e. Chromatography ................................................................................................................................ 39
b. Magnetism ..................................................................................................................................... 40
TOPIC 4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE .................................................................................................. 41
Atom............................................................................................................................................. 41
Composition of an atom ............................................................................................................... 41
The nucleus ............................................................................................................................................ 41
c. Energy levels or shells .................................................................................................................... 41
Characteristics of particles that make an atom ............................................................................. 42
1. Protons ............................................................................................................................................... 42
2. Electrons............................................................................................................................................. 42
3. Neutrons ............................................................................................................................................ 42
Electron configuration.................................................................................................................. 42
Atomic number and mass number ............................................................................................... 44
Nuclide symbols ........................................................................................................................... 46
Isotopes ........................................................................................................................................ 46
key points about isotopes ............................................................................................................. 47
Calculating the average mass of an element given masses of isotopes........................................ 48
TOPIC 5 : THE PERIODIC TABLE ........................................................................................... 49
Names and symbols of the first twenty elements ......................................................................... 49
Main features of the periodic table .............................................................................................. 50
Groups .......................................................................................................................................... 50
Elements in the same group: ................................................................................................................. 50
Periods .......................................................................................................................................... 51
General distribution of elements in the periodic table ................................................................. 51
Electron configuration of the first twenty elements ..................................................................... 51
Relating the electron configuration to the periods and groups of the periodic table ........................... 52
Relationship between valence electrons and group number of the element ....................................... 52
Relationship between period and number of shells of an atom............................................................ 52
Family names of elements in the periodic table ........................................................................... 53
Group I elements : Alkali metals ....................................................................................................... 53
d. Group II elements : Alkaline earth metals .................................................................................... 53
e. Group VII elements : Halogens ..................................................................................................... 53

Page 5 of 67
 f. Group VIII elements : Noble gases ............................................................................................... 53
TOPIC 6: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES ................................................................. 54
Physical change ............................................................................................................................ 54
Characteristics of a physical change ............................................................................................ 54
Chemical change .......................................................................................................................... 54
Characteristics of a chemical change ........................................................................................... 55
Differences between physical and chemical changes .................................................................. 55
Chemical reactions ....................................................................................................................... 55
Reactants................................................................................................................................................ 55
Products ................................................................................................................................................. 55
What happens during a chemical reaction? .......................................................................................... 55
Chemical equations ...................................................................................................................... 56
Ways of writing chemical equations ............................................................................................ 56
Chemical symbols/formulae equations ........................................................................................ 57
Balancing chemical equations ...................................................................................................... 57
Guidelines for balancing chemical equations .............................................................................. 57
Coefficient .............................................................................................................................................. 57
Subscript................................................................................................................................................. 57
Worked examples on balancing equations ................................................................................... 58
Calculating masses of reactants and products in chemical reactions ........................................... 59
The law of conservation of matter ............................................................................................... 61
Percentage composition of a compound ...................................................................................... 61
Calculating percentage composition by mass of elements in a compound .................................. 61
TOPIC 7: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ............................................................................................. 64
History of organic compounds ..................................................................................................... 64
Sources of organic compounds .................................................................................................... 64
1. Plants and animals ......................................................................................................................... 64
2. Fossil fuels ...................................................................................................................................... 64
3. Natural gas ..................................................................................................................................... 64
4. Coal ................................................................................................................................................ 64
Organic compounds as fuels ........................................................................................................ 65
Substances used as fuels in homes ............................................................................................... 65
Classes of fuels............................................................................................................................. 65
Page 6 of 67
 Bio fuels.................................................................................................................................................. 65
Fossil fuels .............................................................................................................................................. 65
Petroleum............................................................................................................................................... 65
Composition of petroleum ..................................................................................................................... 66
Separation of components of petroleum ...................................................................................... 66
Uses of fractions of petroleum ..................................................................................................... 67

Page 7 of 67
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Meaning of chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of science dealing with elements and the compounds they form and the
reactions they undergo.

Branches of chemistry
The branches of chemistry include physical, environmental, analytical, industrial, organic and
inorganic chemistry.

Physical chemistry
It is the study of how chemical compounds and their constituents react with each other.

Environmental chemistry
It is the study of how chemicals react naturally in the environment and human impact on natural
systems.

Analytical chemistry
It is the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural
and artificial materials.

Industrial chemistry
It is the study of the application of physical and chemical processes towards the change of raw
materials into beneficial products.

Organic chemistry
It is the study of compounds that contain carbon except oxides of carbon and carbonates.

Inorganic chemistry
It is the study of compounds that do not contain carbon and non-living things.

Importance of chemistry in everyday life

Chemistry is important in everyday life and it is applied in different ways. Some of the applications
of chemistry are:

Page 8 of 67
• Water treatment. Different chemical processes are used to purify water so that it is safe for
drinking.
• Cooking nsima. Mixing of the ingredients applies concepts in chemistry.

• Making a cup of tea.

• Pharmaceuticals.

• Food industries. Chemistry is involved in the processing of the food. For example, lime is
added to brown sugar so that it becomes white.
• Manufacture of soap and detergents also applies knowledge of chemistry.

• Manufacture of pesticides.

Areas where chemistry is applied

• Pharmaceutical companies that manufacture medical drugs.

• Companies that make food and drinks (soft and alcoholic).

• Companies that manufacture oil products.

• Companies that manufacture fertilizers and pesticides.

• Water purification and supply companies.

• The mining industries.

Careers in chemistry and their importance

Most careers in modern society require the application of the knowledge in chemistry.
Medicine and nursing
Doctors and nurses need chemistry as part of their training.
Pharmacist
Pharmacists require chemistry as part of their training in order to understand the chemicals they are
providing.

Food chemist
Food chemists help test manufactured food to ensure that it is safe to eat.
Teacher chemist
Chemistry teachers prepare students for different careers by teaching them chemistry in schools.

Page 9 of 67
 Environmental chemist
Environmental chemists are involved in managing the environment by making sure rivers and lakes
do not become polluted, waste materials are properly disposed among others.

Laboratory
A laboratory is a special room equipped for conducting scientific research and experimentation.

Safety rules in the laboratory

• Do not drink, taste nor eat anything in the laboratory. Any chemical is never tasted in the
laboratory but can be tested.
• Handle all materials in the laboratory carefully. Glassware must be held with both hands.

• Never run or play in the laboratory.

• Wear protective materials such as lab coat, an apron, and safety goggles.

• Never work in the laboratory barefooted.

• Avoid disturbing or pushing a colleague who is busy working in the laboratory.

• Clean all equipment and workplaces after each laboratory period.

• Tie up long hair and avoid wearing loose clothing which could be caught in equipment.

• Follow experimental procedures and do not take short cuts.

• Avoid carrying out any other experiments other than the one given by the teacher.

• Turn off water, gas and electricity outlets when not in use.

• Keep flame and flammable solutions apart.

• Keep electrical equipment away from water and keep areas around electrical equipment dry.

• Always clean glassware before using them.

• Always work in a well-ventilated area.

• Keep hands away from face, eyes, mouth and body while using chemicals or laboratory
equipment.
• Work areas should be kept clean.

Page 10 of 67
• When first entering a laboratory, do not touch any equipment or other materials in the
laboratory until you are instructed to do so.

Common laboratory apparatus

Protective equipment in the laboratory

• In chemistry, some of the protective equipment includes goggles, gloves, lab coats,
respiratory/gas mask, eye wash station and fire extinguisher

Hazard symbols
• A hazard symbol tells you the dangers associated with handling laboratory chemical and
apparatus. Some of them are shown below.

Page 11 of 67
 Hazard symbol Meaning

Harmful or irritant substance

Toxic substance

Highly flammable

Corrosive

Dangerous to the environment

The SI unit system of measurement

The system of measurement used nowadays is known as the SI system of units. SI stands for
International System.

Basic units
Basic units are a set of unrelated units that form the basis of the SI system of units. These quantities
cannot be expressed in terms of other quantities.

Quantity Unit name Unit Symbol

Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K

Page 12 of 67
Derived units
These are units obtained from combination of basic units through multiplication and division.

Some of them are shown below.

Quantity Name of unit Unit symbol
Area square metre m2
Volume cubic metre m3
Speed metre per second m/s
Density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3

SI prefixes for units of measurements

The SI prefix is an affix that is added to the name of a basic unit. It tells you whether the unit is a
multiple or a fraction of the basic unit. Examples of SI prefixes are shown in the table.

Prefix Fraction or multiple

nano 10-9

micro 10-6

mili 10-3

kilo 103

mega 106

giga 109

Measuring physical quantities

Physical quantities must be measured as accurately as possible. Different measuring instruments are
used to measure the physical quantities.

Measuring mass
The mass of an object is measured using a balance. The triple beam balance is the commonly used
balance in the chemistry laboratory. It is shown in the figure below.

Page 13 of 67
 How to use the triple beam balance
• Put the balance on a flat hard surface where no wind is blowing.

• Put all the masses to zero marks.

• Adjust the zeroing screw until the pointer is at zero.

• Place the object whose mass you want to measure on the pan carefully.

• Move the big mass (100g) first, gradually until the beam balance topples over. Then push the
mass one step back.
• Move the second mass (10g) gradually until the beam balance topples over again and push it
one step back.
• Move the smaller mass (1g) gradually until the pointer is at zero mark again.

• Read the mass by adding the numerical values of positions of all the three masses. An example
is shown.

The mass of the object = (300 + 40 + 5) = 345 g

Page 14 of 67
Measuring volume
The instrument for measuring volume of a liquid is the measuring cylinder. The measuring cylinders
are in different sizes such as 25 ml, 50 ml, 100 ml, 500 ml, and 1000 ml.

How to read the volume

• The volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder must be taken from the bottom of meniscus.
• The meniscus is the curve on the liquid caused by the liquid being slightly attracted to the glass.
• The meniscus must be viewed at eye level and not from an angle as shown below.

Measuring temperature
Temperature is measured using an instrument called thermometer. There are different kinds of
thermometers but the commonly used in the chemistry laboratory is the liquid–in–glass
thermometer.

Page 15 of 67
• This kind of thermometer has a glass tube sealed at both ends and is partly filled with liquid like
mercury or alcohol.
• When the liquid in the bulb is heated, it expands and the top of the liquid moves up the tube.
• To measure the temperature of a liquid, suspend the tip of the thermometer below the surface
of the liquid.
• Allow the liquid in the thermometer to expand. When it has finished expanding and it is no
longer moving up the column, you can read the thermometer.

Measuring time
• Time is measured using an instrument called stopwatch. A stopwatch is handheld and come in
different versions.
• The most commonly used in the chemistry laboratory is the digital stop watch.

• Timing functions are controlled by two buttons; start/stop button and the reset button.
Pressing the start/stop button starts the timer running, and pressing it a second time stops it.
Pressing the reset button resets the stopwatch to zero.
• When you begin a task, you press the start/stop button to begin recording your time. When you
finish working on that task, press the button again to stop recording time.
• When the stop watch is set to zero, five zeroes will be displayed on the screen. The first two
zeroes on the left represent the “minutes”, the middle zeroes represent “seconds” and the last
zero “hundredths of a second”.
• To read the time taken for the task, combine the numbers for your full time used. For example,
11:14:01 would be 11 minutes, 14 seconds and 01 hundredths of a second.

Page 16 of 67
Scientific method of investigation
Like other subjects, chemistry is a practical subject. It follows the scientific method or enquiry.

Steps of scientific inquiry

1. Identify a problem
Identifying a problem involves asking questions about the natural world. Examples of scientific
questions are:

• What causes rusting?

• Why do plastics not decompose easily?

2. Formulating a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a guessed answer to a problem. A hypothesis is formulated from the scientist’s
experiences and knowledge.

3. Testing the hypothesis

To test, the hypothesis, an experiment is carried out. An experiment is a series of investigations
intended to accept, modify or reject a hypothesis.

4. Analyse the results

This involves looking at the collected date and making sense of it.

5. Conclusion
• The conclusion is drawn based upon the collected data. It is either a conformation or the
rejection of the hypothesis under investigation.
• If the hypothesis is correct, it is confirmed and adopted and if false it is declared null and void
hence rejected. When the hypothesis is rejected, another one is formulated and tested.

Page 17 of 67
 TOPIC 2: ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICAL SKILLS
IN CHEMISTRY
Expressing numbers in standard form
• The standard form or the scientific notation is a special way of writing very large number or
very small numbers. When a number is expressed in standard form, its meaning or value does
not change.
• The number is written in two parts which give the original number when multiplied. One of
the numbers must be between 1 and 10 and the other is a power of ten.

Expressing very big numbers in standard notation

• Place a decimal point just after the first digit, followed by x 10 to the power the number of
places moved from the decimal point to the last digit.
• The movement is from the left to the right. The power of ten must be positive.

Example

Write down each of the following numbers in standard form.

a. 4 500

b. 67 413

c. 300 000 000

Solution

a. 4.5×103

b. 6.7413×104

c. 3.0×108

Page 18 of 67
Expressing very small numbers in standard form
• Place the decimal point just after the first non-zero digit, followed by x 10 to the power the
number of places moved from the decimal point.
• The movement is from the right to the left. The power of ten is negative.

Example
Write the following numbers in scientific form.
a. 0.00067

b. 0.00145

c. 0.335

Solution
a. 6.7 x 104

b. 1.45 x 103

c. 3.35 x 101

Significant figures
Significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision.

Guidelines for writing significant figures

1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, in the number 6753 there are 4 significant
figures.
2. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant. For example, the number 40072 has 5
significant figures.
3. Zeroes to the left of non-zero digits are not significant. For example, the number:

0.89 has 2 significant figures

0.089 has 2 significant figures

0.0089 has 2 significant figures

4. If a number ends in zeroes to the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are significant. For
example, the number 9.0 has 2 significant figures.

Page 19 of 67
5. In a figure without a decimal point, the right most non-zero digit is the least significant figure.
For example, in 7900 the least significant is 9.
6. If the next digit after the last significant figure is 4 or less, the number is rounded down. If it is
5 or more, it is rounded up. For example, 14.628 to 4 significant figures are 14.63 while
15.473 to 4 significant figures are 15. 47.

Expressing numerical results to correct number of significant

Figures
Addition and subtraction
• The result obtained from adding or subtracting and multiplying or dividing numbers must
be quoted based on the number that has the least number of significant figures.

Example 1
Add the following number: 2 345, 7 800 and 934 456.
Solution
The answer is 940 000 and not 944 601 because 7 800 has the least number of significant figures
(which is 2).

Example 2
2.467 ×465
Work out =
2.7

Solution

424.872222222 to 2 significant figures is 420.

Accuracy and precision

Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual value.
Precision is how close the measured values are to each other.
Example
• Consider the three measurements 30.01g, 30.02 and 30.03. If the actual value is 30.0g, then
all the three measurements are accurate because they are very close to the actual value.
• They are also precise because they are close to each other.

Page 20 of 67
 Graphs
Graphs are pictorial representations of data values measured in an experiment.

Types of graphs
Graphs can be in form of line graphs, bar graphs or pie charts.

a. Line graphs
Line graphs use points connected by a line to show data. The line graph must have the following
components:

• Title. For example, “A graph of temperature against time”

• Axes. These are fixed reference lines for the measurement of coordinates. There are two axes
on the graph. The horizontal axis, a straight line drawn from the left to the right and the vertical
axis, a straight line drawn from bottom to the top. From any statement, “a graph of A against
B”, A must be on the vertical axis while B must be on the horizontal axis.
• Scale. A range of numbers that show the units used on the graph.

• Origin. It is a point where the vertical and horizontal axes meet. An example of a line graph is
shown below

b. Bar graphs
• A bar graph displays data using bars or rectangles to show comparisons between categories
of data. The bars can either be vertical or horizontal.
• On the bar graph, one axis will describe the types of categories being compared; and another
will have numerical values that represent the values of data.
• Just like the line graph, the bar graph includes a title, scale, axes among other things.

Page 21 of 67
• For example, the figure below is a bar graph showing concentration of solute of three
chromatograms, A, B and C.

c. Pie charts
• A pie chart display data in the form of a circle. In the pie chart, a circle is divided into
various sections or segments. Each segment represents a certain proportion or percentage
of the total.
• In such a diagram, the total of all the given items is equated to 360º. The degrees of angles,
representing different items are calculated proportionately. An example of a pie chart is
shown below.

Page 22 of 67
TOPIC 3: COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF MATTER
Definition of matter
Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.

States of matter
There are three states of matter. These are solids, liquids and gases

Properties of the three states of matter

1. Solids
• Particles in solids are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern.

• They do not flow. This is because particles are not free to move. But they vibrate in fixed
positions.
• They have a definite shape.

• They have a definite volume.

• They are difficult to compress.

2. Liquids
• Particles in liquids are close together, but with no regular arrangement.

• Liquids flow. This is because their particles are free to move while sticking together.

• They have indefinite shape. In other words, they take the shape of the container in which they
are put.

Page 23 of 67
• They have a definite volume.

• They are difficult to compress.

3. Gases
• Particles are very far apart from each other with no regular arrangement.

• Particles move randomly at very high speeds in all directions.

• They have an indefinite shape.

• They an indefinite volume.

• They can be compressed.

• They flow and particles can move past one another.

The particulate nature of matter

• The particulate nature of matter is an idea that explains how matter is put together.
• Matter is made up small particles called molecules.
• The molecules are in turn made up of indivisible and invisible particles called atoms.

Atom
• An atom is defined as the smallest particle of matter.

Evidence of the particulate nature of matter

The particulate nature of matter can be proved using the concept of diffusion.
Diffusion
• Diffusion is defined as the movement of particles from a region of a higher concentration to
a region of a lower concentration.
• Diffusion takes place mainly in liquids and gases, but it occurs most quickly in gases because
the particles in gases are very far apart and move more randomly at very high speeds.
• It does not take place in solids because particles in solids are not free to move.

Page 24 of 67
Investigating diffusions in liquids
Materials:

• A beaker

• Water

• Potassium permanganate crystals Thistle funnel.

Procedure
a. Put the thistle funnel into the beaker.
b. Slide a few crystals of potassium permanganate into the beaker through the thistle funnel.

c. Pour water into the beaker with the thistle funnel in the same position as shown in the Figure
3.1.

Figure 3.1

d. Carefully, remove the thistle funnel.

e. Leave the set up for 5 minutes and observe what happens. Do not shake or swirl the beaker.

Observations
After five minutes, the purple colour of potassium permanganate is distributed throughout the
water in the beaker.
Explanations
• The purple colour of potassium permanganate spreads because the particles leave the crystals
and mix with water.

Page 25 of 67
• The solute particles move throughout the water as they keep colliding with water particles as
they move, eventually becoming evenly distributed and the colour of water turns purple.
• In simple words, the particles of potassium permanganate have diffused.
This demonstration proves that matter is made up of tiny particles which are in constant motion.

Common examples of diffusion in everyday life

• When you enter a restaurant, you smell food being cooked.

• Sugar diffuses in water when it dissolves.

• Coffee grains spread in water.

• A person wearing perfumed clothes

Elements
• An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical means.
Elements are made up of atoms.
• Some elements exist as separate atoms, while others comprise groups of atoms combined
together.
• The groups of atoms that result from combination of two or more atoms are called molecules.
• However, it is worth noting that elements are made form only one kind of atoms.

Examples of elements
• There are about 115 elements which have been discovered. Ninety–nine of the elements occur
naturally, while twenty–four of these have been made artificially by scientists.
• The table shows is a list of the first twenty elements.

Hydrogen Sodium
Helium Magnesium
Lithium Aluminum
Beryllium Silicon
Boron Phosphorous
Carbon Sulphur

Page 26 of 67
 Nitrogen Chlorine
Oxygen Argon
Fluorine Potassium
Neon Calcium

Chemical symbols of atoms of elements

• The chemical symbol is a shorthand form for writing the names of the elements.
• The system of writing symbols uses the letter taken from the name of the element. This
could be the English or Latin name of the element.

Rules for writing chemical symbols of elements

• All chemical symbols consist of one or two letters.

• The second letter is added where some elements have the same initial letter.

• The first letter of the chemical symbols must always be capital.

Name of element Chemical symbol Name of element Chemical symbol

Hydrogen H Sodium Na
Helium He Magnesium Mg
Lithium Li Aluminium Al
Beryllium Be Silicon Si
Boron B Phosphorous P
Carbon C Sulphur S
Nitrogen N Chlorine Cl
Oxygen O Argon Ar
Fluorine F Potassium K
Neon Ne Calcium Ca

Page 27 of 67
The table below shows chemical symbols of elements which are derived from Latin names of the
elements.

Element Latin name Chemical symbol

Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Silver Argentum Ag
Lead Plumbum Pb
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg

Molecules
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound which can exist in a free and
separate state.

Types of molecules
There are three main types of molecules. These are:
a. Monoatomic molecules
These are molecules composed of one atom. Examples are helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar),
Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn).
b. Diatomic molecules
These are molecules composed of two atoms. Examples are Hydrogen (H2), Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen
(N2), Fluorine (F2), Chlorine (Cl2), Bromine (Br2) and Iodine (I2).
c. Polyatomic molecules
These are molecules composed of many atoms. The examples are Sulphur (S8) and Phosphorous
(P4).

Page 28 of 67
Using models or diagrams to illustrate formation of molecules
Example 1: Oxygen molecule (O2)

Let represent one oxygen atom.

Since oxygen molecule is diatomic, it will be shown as:

oxygen molecule

Example 2: Water molecule (H2O)

A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

Let represent oxygen atom and

represent hydrogen atom
The water molecule is shown as

water molecule

Compounds
A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more different chemical elements. In a
compound, elements are present in definite proportion.

A compound has different chemical and physical properties from those elements of which it is
composed of.

The table below shows examples of compounds and elements which are present in each
compound.

Name of compound Elements present in the compound

Water Hydrogen, Oxygen
Carbon dioxide Carbon, oxygen
Sodium chloride Sodium, Chlorine

Page 29 of 67
 Copper carbonate Copper, Carbon, Nitrogen
Glucose Carbon, Hydrogen , Oxygen
Ammonia Hydrogen, Nitrogen
Potassium nitrate Potassium, Nitrogen, Oxygen
Methane Carbon, Hydrogen

Differences between an element and a compound

Element Compound
Is made up of only one kind of atoms Is made up of two or more elements
Cannot be split into simpler substances by Can be split into individual elements using
chemical means chemical reactions
Are represented by chemical symbols of their Are represented by chemical formula
atoms

Chemical formulae of substances

This is a formula that shows what types of atoms present and how many there are for each type, in
a given compound.

• The types of atoms present in the compound are indicated by the chemical symbols of the
elements.
• The numbers for each type of atoms is are indicated by a subscript. A subscript is a lowered
small digit. It is written slightly below the element symbol.

For example, the chemical formula of glucose is C6H12O 6 . This formula tells us that:

Page 30 of 67
• In glucose molecule, there are three types of atoms that combine. These are Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O).

• There are 6 carbon (C) atoms, 12 Hydrogen (H) atoms and 6 Oxygen (O) atoms in the
compound.

The chemical formulae of some common substances are shown below.

Name of substance Chemical formulae

Carbon dioxide CO2

Water H2O

Ethanol C2H5OH

Sodium chloride (common salt) NaCl

Copper (II) sulphate CuSO4

Determining the type and number of atoms in the chemical

formula of a given substance
Example 1:
The molecule of sucrose consists of 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms and 11 oxygen atoms.
Write down the molecular formula of sucrose.
Solution:
The molecular formula of sucrose is C12H22O11.
Example 2:
The chemical formula of sodium sulphate is given as Na2SO4.

a. Determine the types and number of atoms in sodium sulphate.

b. Work out the total number of atoms in sodium sulphate.

Solution:
a. The types and number of atoms are:

Page 31 of 67
Sodium (Na) = 2 atoms , Sulphur (S) = 1 atom, Oxygen (O) = 4 atoms

b. Total number of atoms = 2 + 1 + 4 = 7 atoms

Example 3:
Work out the total number of atoms present in one molecule of copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 .
Solution:
(NO3)2 means that everything inside the brackets is multiplied by 2.
Copper (Cu) = 1 atom

Nitrogen (N) = 2 atoms

Oxygen (O) = 6 atoms

Total number of atoms = 1+2+6

= 9 atoms

Pure substances and mixtures

A pure substance is a substance that has definite and constant properties throughout the sample.
It can either be an element or a compound. Examples of pure substances are rain water, salt,
ethanol, sugar etc.

A mixture is a substance that contains two or more kinds of substances that are not chemically
joined together.

Types of mixtures
There are two types of mixtures. These are homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.

a. Homogeneous mixture
It is a mixture in which the particles are uniformly distributed throughout the mixture. Examples
are sugar solution, salt solution, blood, air, milk etc.

b. Heterogenous mixture
It is a mixture in which the particles are not evenly distributed within the sample. Examples are
rock, soup, water, crude oil, a mixture of slat and sand.

Page 32 of 67
Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components. It is a mixture of a solute and
solvent.

A solute is substance that dissolves in another substance. A substance in which another substance
dissolves is called the solvent. For example, in a sugar solution, sugar is the solute while water is
the solvent.

Aqueous solution and non-aqueous solutions

An aqueous solution is the one in which the solvent is water. Examples are sugar solution, salt
solution etc. A non-aqueous solution is the one in which the solvent is not water. Examples are
iodine in water, acetone in benzene.

Types of solutions
a. Solid–in–solid
• This is a solution in which a solid is dissolved in another solid.
• This is done when both metals are melted so that they can uniformly form a single
solution.
• For example, galvanized iron is a solution of zinc in iron, and brass is a solution of
zinc in copper.
a. Liquid–in–liquid
• This is a solution in which a liquid is dissolved in another liquid.
• For example, vinegar is a solution of acetic acid in water.

b. Solid–in–liquid
• This is a solution in which a solid dissolves in a liquid.
• The best example is a solution of sugar in water.

c. Gas–in–liquid
• This is a solution in which a gas is dissolved in a liquid.
• Fizzy drinks are solutions of a gas in a liquid.
• For example, in soda water, Coca-Cola, coco pina, and cherry plum carbon dioxide is
dissolved in water.

Page 33 of 67
Saturated and unsaturated solutions
• A saturated solution is the one in which no more solute can dissolve. If more solute is added
to a saturated solution, undissolved crystals of the solute will rest at the bottom of the container
without dissolving.
• An unsaturated solution is the one in which more solute can dissolve.

Ways of making a saturated solution unsaturated

• Adding more solvent to the solution.

• Increasing the temperature of the solution i.e. by heating

Ways of making unsaturated solution saturated

• Add more solute to a liquid.

• Evaporate the solvent from an unsaturated solution.

• Lowering the temperature of the solution.

Factors affecting solubility

Temperature
• The solubility of solids in liquids increases as the temperature increases, and decreases as
the temperature decreases.
• When temperature increases, solvent particles gain kinetic energy and collide frequently
with solute particles, hence speeding up the solubility.

Size of particles
• Solubility of solids increases with an increase in surface area and decreases with a decrease
in surface area.
• Thus, powders dissolve more quickly than lumps in the same volume of solvent.
• This is because; small particles can easily come into contact with solvent molecules, while
it is difficult for solvent molecules to surround large particles.

Polarity
• Polar solutes dissolve best in polar solvents. Non–polar solutes dissolve best in non–polar
solvents.
Page 34 of 67
Ways of increasing solubility of solutes in solvents
• Stirring the solution.

• Crushing the solute to powder.

• Heating the solution.

Methods of separating mixtures

• The methods include filtration, decantation, evaporation, distillation (simple and
fractional), chromatography and magnetism.

a. Filtration
• Filtration is a method used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. During filtration,
the mixture is passed through a filter paper which acts like a sieve.
• The filter paper has millions of tiny holes in it, allowing the liquid to pass but retaining
the solid particles.

• The liquid that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate and the solid that
remains on the filter paper is called the residue.
• Examples of mixtures that can be separated by filtration include a mixture of sand
water, and a mixture of salt and a salt.

Page 35 of 67
 b. Decantation
• This method is used to separate mixtures of immiscible liquids or of a solid and a liquid
in a suspension.
• Immiscible liquids are liquids that do not mix and form two distinct layers in a container
e.g. water and paraffin, vinegar and oil etc.
• To separate two immiscible liquids, the top layer is carefully poured out into another
container. The middle portion is rejected since it is a mixture of the two unseparated
liquids. The other liquid remains behind.
• When separating a mixture of a solid and a liquid, the mixture is allowed to stand in a
beaker until all the solid settles at the bottom of the container. Then, the liquid is
carefully poured off to leave the insoluble solid behind.
c. Evaporation
• This is a method of separating a soluble solid substance from its solvent. For example,
salt could be recovered from salt solution using this method.
• Heat is applied to an evaporating basin containing the solution and molecules of a
liquid escape from it leaving behind the solid particles.

Figure 2.3

d. Distillation
• This is a chemical process of separating substances that have different boiling points
by heating the mixture until it turns into gas and then cooling and collecting each
substance separately.

There are two kinds of distillation; simple distillation and fractional distillation.

Page 36 of 67
I) Simple distillation
• Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solution. It is useful for
producing water from salt solutions.
• Simple distillation works on the principle that the dissolved solute has a much higher
boiling point than the solvent.
• When the solution is heated, solvent vapour evaporates from the solution. The gas
moves away and is cooled and condensed.
• The remaining solution becomes more concentrated in solute as the amount of solvent
in it decreases.

II) ii) fractional distillation

• Fractional distillation is used to separate different liquids from a mixture of miscible
liquids.
• It is useful for separating ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water, and for
separating different fractions from crude oil (petroleum).
• Fractional distillation works on the principle that the different liquids have different
boiling points.
• When the mixture is heated:
➢ Vapours rise through a column which is hot at the bottom and cold at the top. It is
called the fractionating column.

Page 37 of 67
 ➢ Vapours condense when they reach a part of the column that is below the
temperature of their boiling point.

• The different liquids are collected from different parts of the column. The substance with
the lowest boiling point is collected at the top of the column.

Separating ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water

➢ The apparatus is set up as shown below.

➢ The mixture is heated and a mixture of ethanol vapour and water vapour rises up
the column.

➢ The vapour condenses on the glass beads in the column making them hot.

➢ When the temperature of the beads reaches about 78ºC, ethanol vapour moves up
the column into the condenser, while the water drips back into the flask.
➢ Eventually, the thermometer reading rises above 78ºC. This indicates that all the
ethanol has been separated hence heating can be stopped.

Page 38 of 67
 e. Chromatography
• This is a method of separating a mixture of chemically similar ingredients. These are often
coloured substances such as food colourings, inks, dyes or plant pigments.
• Chromatography separates mixtures by taking advantage of their different rates of
movement in a solvent over an absorbent material.
Paper chromatography
• In paper chromatography, the absorbent material is a filter paper and solvents such as water,
ethanol, propanone and other organic solvents can be used.
• Substances are picked up and carried by a mobile phase which moves through a
stationary phase.
• The stationary phase is the part of the chromatography which is in solid state e.g. the filter
paper.
• The mobile phase is the part of the chromatography which is in gaseous or liquid state e.g.
the solvent.
• The different dissolved substances in the mixture are attracted to the two phases in different
proportions. This causes them to travel at different rates through the paper.

PROCEDURE
• Using a pencil, a ‘start line’ is drawn near the bottom of the chromatography paper.

• The mixture to be separated is spotted on the start line.

• The bottom of the chromatography paper is dipped into the solvent and the solvent travels up
the paper by capillary action.
• The solvent picks up the substance being separated and carries it up the paper.

• The different components in the substance rise to different heights.

• The “solvent front” is marked.

The solvent front is the furthest point reached by the solvent on chromatography paper.
The pattern formed by the substances that have been separated by chromatography is called the
chromatogram.

Page 39 of 67
 b. Magnetism
This is a method used to separate magnetic from non-magnetic materials.
A magnet is hanged over the mixture and only magnetic materials are attracted to the magnet
thereby achieving separation.

Page 40 of 67
 TOPIC 4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of matter.

Composition of an atom
An atom consists of three sub-atomic particles. These include protons, neutrons and electrons.
The central part of the atom is called the nucleus.
The nucleus
• It contains protons and neutrons.
• It has a positive charge because of the protons.
• The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
• It is tiny compared to the size of the atom.
Outside the nucleus are regions called energy levels, or shells.

c. Energy levels or shells

• These are imaginary paths through which electrons move.

• They are different distances from the nucleus.

• They are associated with a certain quantity of energy. An electron moving from one energy
level to another absorbs or emits energy depending on whether it moves to a lower or a higher
energy level.

Page 41 of 67
Characteristics of particles that make an atom

1. Protons
• These are positively charged particles. Each proton has a charge of +1.

• Each proton has a mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit).

• They are found inside the nucleus of an atom.

2. Electrons
• These are negatively charged particles. Each electron has a charge of -1.

• Electrons have no mass.

• They move around the nucleus at very high speeds.

• They occupy the energy levels.

3. Neutrons
• These particles have no charge. They are considered to be neutral because they contain
an equal number of positive and negative charges.
• Each neutron has a mass of 1 amu.

• They are found inside the nucleus of an atom.

The table below shows the summary of characteristics of particles found in atom.

Particle Charge Mass Location

Proton +1 1 amu nucleus
Electron -1 Almost zero energy levels/shells
Neutron 0 (No charge) 1 amu nucleus

Electron configuration
• Electron configuration is the number and arrangement of electrons in atom.
• In other words, the electron configuration shows us how electrons are distributed in the
energy levels of an atom.

Page 42 of 67
The first twenty elements follow the following electron configuration:
• The 1st shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

• The 2nd shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

• The 3rd shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

• The 4th shell can hold a maximum of 18 electrons.

The electron configuration is shown as a pattern of numbers. For example, 2.8.8.2 or 2:8:8:2.
Worked examples on electron configuration
Example 1:
A sodium (Na) atom contains 11 atoms.
a. Write down its electron configuration.
b. Draw the atomic structure of sodium (Na)

Solution:
a. 1st shell = 2 electrons
From the 11 electrons, the remainder is 9.
2nd shell = 8 electrons
From the 9 electrons, the remainder is 1.
3rd shell = 1
Therefore, the electron configuration of sodium is 2.8.1
b. The atomic structure of sodium is shown as

Example 2:
Boron (B) has 5 electrons.

a. Write down its electron configuration.

Page 43 of 67
b. Draw the atomic structure of boron.

Solution
a. Its electron configuration is 2.3
b. Its atomic structure is shown as:

Atomic number and mass number

• Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by capital
letter Z.
• The atomic number is like an ‘identity card’ of an atom.
• It is the property that makes atoms of different elements different.
• Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• It is denoted by capital letter A.
• The number of neutrons is normally represented by capital letter N.
• The relationship between the atomic number (Z), the mass number (A) and the number of
neutrons (N) is expressed as follows:

Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

A =Z+N

Page 44 of 67
 • The number of protons in an electrically neutral atom is equal to the number of electrons.
The atomic numbers, number of neutrons and mass numbers of the first twenty elements
are shown below.

Element Symbol Number of protons Number of Mass number (A)

(Atomic number, Z) neutrons (N)
Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 4 7
Beryllium Be 4 5 9
Boron B 5 6 11
Carbon C 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 10 19
Neon Ne 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 12 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 14 27
Silicon Si 14 14 28
Phosphorous P 15 16 31
Sulphur S 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 18 35
Argon Ar 18 22 40
Potassium K 19 20 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 40

Page 45 of 67
Nuclide symbols
• A nuclide is any form of an element which is characterized by specific constitution of its
nucleus.
• To represent a nuclide, we write the chemical symbol of the element with the mass number
on the top left and atomic number at the bottom left of the element.

where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number and X is the element symbol. Example
You are given an atom X that has 17 protons, 20 neutrons and 17 electrons.

a. Find the atomic number of atom X.

b. Work out its atomic mass.

c. Write down the nuclide of X.

d. Write down the electron configuration of X.

Solution:
a. Atomic number = Number of protons = 17
b. Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

= 17 + 20

= 37 amu
37
c. The nuclide of X is 17𝑋
d. Since there are 17 electrons, the electron configuration of X is 2.8.7.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic numbers but different mass
numbers.

They have different mass numbers because they have different number of neutrons on their nuclei.

Page 46 of 67
Examples of isotopes are shown below.

Element Name of isotope Notation Particles present

1
Hydrogen Hydrogen – 1 H 1 proton, 0 neutrons
1
2
Hydrogen – 2 H 1 proton, 1 neutron
1
3
Hydrogen – 3 H 1 proton, 2 neutrons
1
Carbon Carbon – 12 12 C 6 protons, 6 neutrons
6
Carbon – 14 14 C 6 protons, 8 neutrons
6
Chlorine Chlorine – 35 35 Cl 17 protons, 18 neutrons
17
Chlorine – 37 37 Cl 17 protons, 20 neutrons
17
Uranium Uranium – 235 235 U 92 protons, 143 neutrons
92
Uranium – 238 238 U 92 protons, 146 protons
92

key points about isotopes

• They have the same number of protons on their nuclei.

• They have different number of neutrons on their nuclei.

• They have the same number of electrons in their outermost shell.

• They belong to the same group of the Periodic Table.

• They belong to the same period in the Periodic Table.

• They have identical (similar) chemical properties i.e. they react in the same way.

Page 47 of 67
Calculating the average mass of an element given masses of
isotopes
• The average mass of atoms is also called the relative atomic mass (RAM).
• It is calculated from the relative percentage abundance in nature (RPA) of the isotopes and
the relative isotopic mass (RIM). Thus:
• RAM of element X = (RPA of isotope 1 x its RIM) + (RPA of isotope 2 x its RIM)

Example 1:
35 37
A sample of chlorine gas contains two isotopes, 17𝐶𝑙 and 17𝐶𝑙 . Given that the percentage
35 37
abundance of 17𝐶𝑙 is 75% and that of 17𝐶𝑙 is 25%, calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Solution

Relative atomic mass of chlorine = ×35 + ×37

= 26. 25 + 9.25
= 35.5 amu

Example 2:
20
A sample of neon contains 90% of atoms of 10𝑁𝑒 and 10% of atoms of 22
10𝑁𝑒 . Work out the relative

atomic mass of this sample of neon.

Solution

Relative atomic mass of neon = ×20 + x 22

= 18 + 2. 2

= 20. 2 amu

Page 48 of 67
TOPIC 5 : THE PERIODIC TABLE
• The periodic table is a table in which chemical elements are arranged according to their
atomic numbers, electron configurations and recurring chemical properties.

Names and symbols of the first twenty elements

• Recall that there are different kinds of elements.
• The table below shows the names and symbols of the first twenty elements.

Name of Chemical Atomic number Number of Atomic mass (Z + N)

element symbol (Z) neutrons (N)

Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 4 7
Beryllium Be 4 5 9
Boron B 5 6 11
Carbon C 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 10 19
Neon Ne 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 12 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 14 27
Silicon Si 14 14 28
Phosphorous P 15 16 31
Sulphur S 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 18 35
Argon Ar 18 22 40
Potassium K 19 20 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 40

Page 49 of 67
 • When these elements are shown in the periodic table, their standard notations are used. For
example, hydrogen (H) is shown as 11H , magnesium (Mg) is shown as 2412 Mg, and so on.

The Periodic Table of the first twenty elements is shown below.

Main features of the periodic table

There are two main features of the periodic table: groups and periods.

Groups
These are vertical columns of elements in the periodic. Groups are also called families. There eight
groups in the periodic table. They are indicated by Roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VII
and VIII. For example,

• Group I contains hydrogen (H), lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K).

• Group II contains beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca).

Elements in the same group:

▪ have the same number of electrons in the outermost shell.
▪ have similar physical and chemical properties.

▪ show trends in melting and boiling points

Page 50 of 67
Periods
These are horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. Periods are also called series. There
are four periods in the periodic table. They are indicated by Hindu Arabic numerals. For example,

• Period 1 has hydrogen (H) and helium (He) only.

• Period 2 has lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),
fluorine (F) and neon (Ne).

All elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.

General distribution of elements in the periodic table

The elements in the Periodic Table can be classified into metals, metalloids (semi-metals) and non-
metals.

• Metals (groups I, II and III).

• Metalloids (groups III and IV).

• Non-metals (groups V, VI, VII and VIII).

Electron configuration of the first twenty elements

Recall that electron configuration refers to the number and arrangement of electrons in an atom.
The Periodic Table below shows the electron configurations of the first twenty elements.

H He

1 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8

K Ca

2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2

Page 51 of 67
 Relating the electron configuration to the periods and groups of the periodic table
• The electron configuration of any element can be used to predict the group number of an
element as well as the period to which the element belongs in the Periodic Table.

Relationship between valence electrons and group number of the element

• The number of electrons in the outermost shell (valence electrons) indicates the group
number to which the element belongs.
• For example, all elements in group I have one valence electron, elements in group II have
two valence electrons, elements in group III have three valence electrons, and so on.

Relationship between period and number of shells of an atom

• The number of shells of an atom of an element indicates the period to which the element
belongs.
• For example, all elements in period 1 have one electron shell only, all elements in period
2 have two electron shells, elements in period 3 have three electron shells, and so on.
Example

39
An element X can be represented as: 19𝑋

a. Write down the electron configuration of X.

b. How many neutrons does the atom of X have?

c. To which group of the Periodic Table does element X belong? Give a reason.

d. To which period of the Periodic Table does element X belong? Give a reason.

Solution
a. 2.8.8.1

b. Number of neutrons = Atomic mass – Atomic number

= 39 -19

= 20

c. It belongs to group 1 because it has one electron in its outermost shell.

d. It belongs to period 4 because it has four electron shells.

Page 52 of 67
Family names of elements in the periodic table
Some of the groups in the Periodic Table have special names. These include:
Group I elements : Alkali metals
• The alkali metals include Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K). Hydrogen is not
an alkali metal. It is a gaseous element.
• It is placed in group I mainly because it has one valence electron just like all the alkali
metals.
d. Group II elements : Alkaline earth metals
• The alkaline earth metals include Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), and Calcium (Ca)
e. Group VII elements : Halogens
• Halogens include Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), and Iodine (I). Bromine and
Iodine are not shown in the Periodic Table of the first twenty elements but they are
halogens.
f. Group VIII elements : Noble gases
Noble gases are also called inert gases. These include Helium (He), Neon (Ne) and Argon (Ar).

Page 53 of 67
TOPIC 6: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

• A substance can be changed by heating it, mixing it with another substance, and adding
water to it, among other things.
• The change that takes place is either physical or chemical.

Physical change
• A physical change is a process in which no new substance is formed. During a physical
change, only the physical properties of the substance are changed.
• Examples of physical changes are:

• Melting of candle wax

• Melting of ice into water

• Dissolving of sugar in water

• Changes of states of matter e.g. condensation, sublimation, freezing etc.

Characteristics of a physical change

• No new substance is formed.

• No energy is either given out or absorbed in.

• The mass of the substance does not change.

• The change is usually reversible.

Chemical change
• A chemical change is a process in which a new substance is formed.
• Examples of chemical changes are:

• combustion of fuel

• burning of wood, charcoal and paper.,

• chemical reactions

Page 54 of 67
 • decomposition of compounds

Characteristics of a chemical change

• A new substance is formed.

• Energy is usually given out or absorbed.

• The mass of substances changes.

• The change is usually irreversible.

Differences between physical and chemical changes

Physical change Chemical change
No new substance is formed A new substance is formed
No energy is either given out or absorbed Energy is usually given out or absorbed
The mass of the substance does not change The mass of the substance changes
The change is usually reversible The change is usually irreversible

Chemical reactions
• A chemical reaction is the re-arrangement of atoms to form new substances.
• In any chemical reaction, there are two groups of substances: reactants and products.
Reactants
• These are the substances that take part in and undergo change during a chemical
reaction.
Products
• These are substances that are formed as a result of the chemical reaction.

What happens during a chemical reaction?

• the bond in the reactant breaks
• the atoms in the reactant compounds form re-arrange or forms new bonds with other
atoms.

This results in the formation of new substances.

Page 55 of 67
Chemical equations
A chemical equation is a shorthand way of representing what happens in a chemical reaction. In a
chemical reaction:

• reactants and products are separated by an arrow as follows:

Reactants Products

For example:

Hydrogen + Oxygen Water

(Reactants) (Product)

NB: reactants are always written on the left-hand side while products are written on the right-hand
side of the arrow.

• The plus (+) sign in chemistry when used on the left-hand side of the arrow means “reacts
with”.
• The arrow means “to form” the products on the right.

• A double arrow ( ) means that the reaction is reversible.

Ways of writing chemical equations

Chemical equations can be written in two ways:
1. By using word equations
2. By using chemical symbols/formulae

Word equations
• A word equation uses words to describe the reaction.
• In this equation you write the names of the reactants and products. Examples
are:

Page 56 of 67
Magnesium + Magnesium oxide
Oxygen

Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride

Calcium carbonate heat Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

Chemical symbols/formulae equations

In this equation, you write the chemical formula of elements to show the reactants and products.
Example 1
Carbon reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. Write a chemical equation for this reaction
using chemical formulae.
Solution
C + O2 CO2

Example 2:
Magnesium reacts with chlorine to produce magnesium chloride. Write a chemical equation for
this reaction using chemical symbols.
SOLUTION
Mg + Cl2 MgCl2

Balancing chemical equations

• Balancing a chemical equation is the process of ensuring that the same number of atoms of
each element is on either side of the equation.

Guidelines for balancing chemical equations

1. Write the correct formulae for reactants and products.
2. Balance by multiplication of coefficients, not addition or subtraction of subscripts.
Coefficient
• This is a number that is written in front of a molecular formula. This number must be a
whole number, not a fraction.
Subscript
• This is a lowered small digit. It is written slightly below the symbol of the element or atom.

Page 57 of 67
3. Write the physical states of the substance in the formula. The following are the short forms for
different physical states which are commonly used in chemical equations.
Physical state symbol
solid state (s)
liquid state (l)
gaseous state (g)
aqueous solution (aq)

Worked examples on balancing equations

Example 1:
Balance the following equation: H2 + O2 H2O
Solution
Step 1:
Compare the number of atoms on the left-hand side (L.H.S) and the right-hand side (R.H.S).
Atom Left Hand Side Right Hand Side
Hydrogen (H) 2 2
Oxygen (O) 2 1
Step 2:
• To make oxygen atoms equal, write numbers in front of the formula (H2). We can start with
2. If does not balance, we go to 3, 4 until the equation is balanced.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
• When you have 2H2O, the number in front means that everything is multiplied by that
number.
• Thus, there are two hydrogen molecules and two oxygen atoms.

Page 58 of 67
Step 3:
Count the number of atoms of each element on the reactants and products, we find that the total
number is the same.
Atom Left Hand Side Right Hand Side
Hydrogen (H) 4 4
Oxygen (O) 2 2
This means that the equation is now balanced.

Step 4:
Insert the correct state symbols for each substance.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

Calculating masses of reactants and products in chemical

reactions
To calculate the masses of reactants or products of a reaction follow the following simple steps:
• Write a balanced equation for the reaction
• Use the balanced equation to come up with the relative atomic masses (RAMs) of each
substance.
• Express the RAMs in grams.

• Use simple proportion to work out required masses.

Example 1:
Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide according to the equation below:
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

(RAM of C = 12, O = 16)

Re-write the equation using masses.
Solution
The relative atomic mass (RAM) of carbon, C = 12 amu

The relative atomic mass of oxygen, O = 16 amu

Page 59 of 67
The molecular mass of oxygen molecule, O2 = (16 + 16) amu = 32 amu

The molecular mass of carbon dioxide, CO2 = (12 + 32) amu

= 44 amu
Expressing the masses in grams we have
12 g of carbon reacts with 32 g of oxygen to form 44 g of carbon dioxide. Using an equation:
12 g C + 32 g O 44 g CO2
Example 2
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide according to the equation below:
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
If 12 g of magnesium is used:
a. how much oxygen is needed?
b. how much magnesium oxide is produced? (RAM of Mg = 24, and O
=16)

Solution
From the equation:
Mass of magnesium = (2 x 24) g = 48 g

Mass of oxygen = (2 x 16) g = 32 g

Mass of magnesium oxide = 2 x (24 +16) g = 80 g

Thus: 48 g Mg + 32 g O 80 g MgO

a. By proportion

48g Mg = 32g O

12g Mg =y

12𝑔 ×32𝑔
y =
48𝑔

= 8g

Therefore, 8 g of oxygen is needed.

Page 60 of 67
b. By proportion
48g Mg = 80g MgO
12 g Mg = x
12𝑔 ×80𝑔
x=
48𝑔
= 20g
Therefore, 20 g of magnesium oxide is produced.

The law of conservation of matter

• The law states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• This statement means that in any chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants is always
equal to the total mass of the products.
• For example, when hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

4 g H + 32 g O = 36 g H2O

36 g (reactants) = 36 g (product)

Percentage composition of a compound

• The percentage composition of a compound tells us which elements are in the compound
and how much of each there is, expressed as a percentage of the total mass.

Calculating percentage composition by mass of elements in a

compound
To calculate the percentage composition by mass of an element in a compound, follow the
following steps:

1. Write down the formula of the compound

2. Work out its relative formula mass (R.F.M) using the relative atomic masses (RAM) of each
element
3. Write the mass of the element in question as a fraction of the total.

4. Multiply the fraction by 100.

Page 61 of 67
Example 1:
Calculate the percentage composition of each element in calcium carbonate (CaCO3). (RAM of Ca
= 40, C = 12, O = 16)
Solution
Relative formula mass of CaCO3 = (40 x 1) + (12 x 1) + (16 x 3)
= (40 + 12 + 48) amu
= 100 amu
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚
a. Percentage composition of Ca = × 100
𝑅𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
40 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 100 𝑎𝑚𝑢
× 100
= 40%
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
b. Percentage composition of O = × 100
𝑅𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
48 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= × 100
100 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 48 %
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛
c. Percentage composition of C = × 100
𝑅𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
12 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= × 100
100 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 12%
Example 2:
Work out the percentage composition by mass of each element in ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
(RAM of N = 14, H = 1, O 16)
Solution

Relative formula mass of (NH4NO3) = (14 x 2) + (4 x 1) + (16 x 3)

= (28 + 4 + 48)
= 80 amu
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
a. Percentage composition of N = × 100
𝑅𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 NH4NO3
28 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= × 100
80 𝑎𝑚𝑢
Page 62 of 67
 = 35%
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
b. Percentage composition of H. = × 100
𝑅𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 NH4NO3
4 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= × 100
80 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 5%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
c. Percentage composition of O = × 100
𝑅𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻4𝑁𝑂3
48𝑎𝑚𝑢
= × 100
80 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 60 %

Page 63 of 67
TOPIC 7: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• An organic compound is a compound that contains the element carbon in its molecule. A branch
of chemistry that deals with organic compounds is called organic chemistry. Examples of
organic compounds are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, crude oil, plastics and medical drugs
made from crude oil.
• Compounds such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, metal carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates are not considered to be organic compounds even though they contain carbon in
their molecules.

History of organic compounds

• A long time ago, scientists believed that organic compounds could only be made by natural
living things.
• For example, compounds such as Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and insulin found in
human bodies are examples of organic compounds made by living things.
• However, now it is a known fact that this is not true.
• Apart from organic compounds deriving from living things, they can also be made
artificially by organic chemists.

Sources of organic compounds

1. Plants and animals
These organisms synthesize many organic compounds. The compounds include sugar, starch,
fats, dyes, drugs among other things.
2. Fossil fuels
These are fuels derived from the decomposed remains of plants and animals which once lived
and died in the sea.
3. Natural gas
Natural gas is a hydrocarbon found underground on top of crude oil and under the sea. It is
95% methane.
4. Coal
This is a fossil fuel formed from decayed plant materials that has been subjected to heat and
pressure over millions of years.

Page 64 of 67
Organic compounds as fuels
• A fuel is a substance that is used to provide energy. A fuel can be in form of solid, liquid or
gas.

Substances used as fuels in homes

• Charcoal

• Butane

• Paraffin

• Wood

• Coal

• Petrol

• Diesel

• Ethanol

• Methylated spirit (ethanol mixed with methanol in spirit lamps and stoves)

Classes of fuels
There are two classes of fuels: bio fuels and fossil fuels.
Bio fuels
• These are fuels made from plants that grow around us.
• Bio fuels are renewable i.e. they can be replaced after we have used them by growing more
plants. Examples of bio fuels are wood, biogas, biodiesel and ethanol.
• These fuels are made from plant materials. For example, ethanol (commonly called alcohol)
and biodiesel can be made from starch and sugar.

Fossil fuels
• These are fuels formed from remains of decayed plants and animals.
• They are found in the ground.
• Examples of fossil fuels are: petroleum or crude oil, coal and natural gas.

Petroleum
• Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons.

Page 65 of 67
 • A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains carbon and hydrogen atoms in its molecule.
• Petroleum is also called crude oil.

Composition of petroleum
• The components of petroleum are called fractions.
• These include:
• Petrol . Diesel

• Bitumen . Paraffin

• Naphtha . Lubricants

Separation of components of petroleum

• The components are separated by fractional distillation. This is because the fractions have
different boiling points.
• The crude oil is evaporated and its vapours allowed to condense at different temperatures
in the fractionating column.

Page 66 of 67
 Uses of fractions of petroleum
The following are some of the uses of the fractions of petroleum.
Fraction Uses

Petro (gasoline) It is used as a fuel for vehicles

Kerosene (paraffin) Used as jet fuel
Use for heating and lighting

Diesel Used as fuel for heavy vehicles

Bitumen Used for tarmacking roads
Used for repairing leaking roofs

Lubricants (e.g. lubricating oil or grease) Used for lubricating moving parts of
machines
Used for making waxes

Used for making polishes

Page 67 of 67