ABSTRACT

Traffic engineering uses engineering methods and techniques to achieve the safe and time efficient

movement of people and goods on roadways. The safe and time efficient movement of the people

and goods is dependent on Traffic flow, which is directly connected to the traffic characteristics.

The three main parameters of a traffic flow are volume, speed and density. In the absence of

effective planning and traffic management of the city, the current road infrastructure cannot cater

the future needs of the city. Pedestrian and vehicle volumes have increased significantly in the last

decade due to the change of the economics of the middle-class families. The current work studies

traffic characteristics in the town of Yemmiganuru at Shiva circle and Y.S.R circle and M.G

petrolbunk . In this work emphasis was given on traffic volume and the analysis was carried out

through primary traffic flow surveys at three Circles. Traffic flow is studied by manual methods.

For better understanding of the present status of traffic flow at the junction, traffic survey is

conducted. Calculation of Passenger Car Units (PCU’s) for different vehicle types was provided

by our respected course co-coordinators of the course CE452. With the help of the data collection,

an attempt had been made to understand the traffic patterns during different time periods. Traffic

control at that junction is also dependent on the traffic flow characteristics. Hence the results from

the present study are helpful in controlling the traffic at the intersection and also in suggesting

some of the remedial measures to improve the traffic safety in the region. Remedial measures such

as widening the road, changing 2-lane or by providing more public transport can be recommended

based on the outcomes of the work.

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1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely express our gratitude thanks to Mr.E.NATHANIELU, MT, Assistant professor

for his guidance and encouragement that led to the completion of this project work.

We extend our sincere and heartful thanks to Mr.V.Giridhar Kumar M.E,, Head of the Civil
Engineering Department for giving this opportunity to do the project work.

We extend our sincere and heartful thanks to Dr. V. VEERANNA, Ph.D Principal for giving
this opportunity to do the project work.

We take this occasion to express our acknowledgement to all the faculty members and Non-
teaching staff of Civil Engineering Department for their co-operation and encouragement
throughout our post-graduation and to all our friends who have helped in one way or the
other.

Finally, we are greatly thankful to our beloved parents for their motivation and
encouragement during the project work and made a part in our success.

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2
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this report is our own work and effort and that it has not been submitted

anywhere for any award. All the contents provided here is totally based on our own labor

dedicated for the completion of the laboratory experiment of volume study of the road lying near

to our university.

Where other sources of information have been used, they have been acknowledged and the

sources of informations have been provided in the reference section.

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3
 CONTENTS

Page no

Abstract ii

Acknowledgements iii

Declaration iv

Contents v

List of Figures x

List of Tables xi

Abbreviations xii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Objectives 2

1.2 Outline of report 2

1.3 Scope of traffic volume studies 3

1.3. a Design purposes 3

1.3. b Improvement purposes 4

1.3. c Planning Purposes 4

1.3. d Dynamic traffic management purposes 5

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 Page No.

1.3. e Other purposes 5

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 6

2.1 Traffic Survey 6

2.2 Main purposes of traffic survey: 7

2.3 Parts of traffic studies: 7

2.4 Traffic Volume Study 8

2.5 Definitions: 8

2.5 a. Volume/flow: 8

2.5 b. Rate of flow: 8

2.5 c. Average Daily Traffic (ADT): 8

2.5 d. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): 9

2.6 Types of Volume Counts 10

2.6 a. Cordon Counts 10

2.6 b. Screen Line Counts 11

2.6 c. Intersection Counts 11

2.6 d. Pedestrian Volume Counts 11

2.6 e. Periodic Volume Counts 12

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 Page No

2.6 e. i) Continuous Counts. 13

2.6 e. ii) Control Counts. 14

2.7 Expansion Factors 14

2.7 a. Hourly expansion factors 14

2.7 b. Daily expansion factors 15

2.7 c. Monthly expansion factors 15

2.8 Reconnaissance Survey 15

2.8 a. Purpose 15

2.8 b. Survey Method 16

2.8 c. Photogrammetry support to highway engineering: 16

2.8 d. Satellite remote sensing: 16

2.8 e. Small format aerial photography (SFAP): 17

2.8 f. Aerial reconnaissance 18

2.8 g. Ground Reconnaissance 18

2.8 h. Instruments for reconnaissance survey 19

2.9 Methods for volume survey 20

2.9. a. Manual Counting Method 20

2.9.a. i) Direct Method: 20

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 Page No.

2.9.a. ii) Indirect Method: 21

2.9.b Automatic counting method 21

2.10 Counting periods 22

2.11 previous works 23

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 32

Chapter 4 DATA ANALYSIS 35

4.1 Volume/Flow (15 minutes): 35

Group 4 Calculation 35

4.2 Service flow rate: (veh/hr) from AUST flyover to Shatrasta 37

4.3 Service flow rate: (veh/hr) from Shatrasta to AUST flyover 38

4.4 Directional distribution 39

4.5 Vehicle Composition 40

4.6 Flow fluctuation 41

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION 42

5.1 Discussion on vehicle composition 42

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 Page No.

5.2 Discussion on directional distribution 42

5.3 Discussion on flow fluctuation 43

5.4 Recommendations 43

5.5 Limitations 44

5.6 Recommendations for future work 44

References 45

Appendix-A Data collection Tables

A.1 Volume data table for individual vehicle A-1

A.2 Summary Table (Volume Data) A-2

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8
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

2.1 Example of Station Locations for a Cordon Count 10

2.2 TDC-12 electronic manual counter 12

2.3 Continuous counting device 13

2.4 Aerial Reconnaissance 18

2.5 Van Curves to Freeway Data (Twin Cities, USA)

(van Aerde, 1995) 24

3.1 Map and length of our study zone 32

3.2 A real time snapshot of the road while counting vehicles 34

3.3 Manual Counter which we used while counting vehicles 34

4.1 Volume in different sections at different times 37

4.2 Volume in different sections at different times 38

4.3 Pie chart showing directional distribution 39

4.4 Composition of traffic stream for Group4 data 40

4.5 Flow fluctuation curve 41

9
LIST OF TABLES

Figure No. Title Page No.

2.1 DVU for Different LOS (Ramanayya, 1988) 27

4.1 Summary of data from all 10 groups 35

4.2 Group-4 Detailed data 35

4.3 HEF and DEF values 36

4.4 Service flow rate: veh/hr from AUST flyover to Shatrasta 37

4.5 Service flow rate: veh/hr from Shatrasta to AUST flyover 38

4.6 Calculation table for directional distribution 39

4.7 Vehicle composition table 40

4.8 Flow fluctuation table 41

4.9 Percent ADT 41

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ABBREVIATIONS

PCU Passenger Car Unit

PCE Passenger Car Equivalent

ADT Average Daily Traffic

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic

DEF Daily Expansion Factor

HEF Hourly Expansion Factor

MEF Monthly Expansion Factor

SFAP Small format aerial photography

O-D Survey Origin Destination Survey

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

DDHV Directional Design Hour Volume

CBD Central Business district

WIM Weigh In Motion

FHWA United States Federal Highway Administration

LOS Level Of service

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 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Only now did I recognize the reciprocal relationship which exits between manufacturing power

and the national system of transportation, and that the one can never develop to its fullest without

the other.

- Frie

This quote describes almost everything about the importance of transportation. Transportation is

carrying civilization to a brighter future. Now a day’s transportation is one of the most burning

issues in every territory of the world. Every country is approaching differently according to their

needs and solving their transportations problems within their capabilities. In designing buildings

we need to determine loads coming to the structure to calculate reinforcement to be provided for

safe functioning of the structure. Here in transportation volume serves the same purpose. For

planning, designing and operation of transportation system the first and foremost requirement is

volume. Volume is simply the number of vehicles passing a section of a roadway. Expressing

traffic volume as number of vehicles passing a given section of road or traffic lane per unit time

will be inappropriate when several types of vehicles with widely varying static and dynamic

characteristics are comprised in the traffic. The problem of measuring volume of such

heterogeneous traffic has been addressed by converting the different types of vehicles into

equivalent passenger cars and expressing the volume in terms of Passenger Car Unit (PCU) per

hour. The interaction between moving vehicles under such heterogeneous traffic condition is

highly complex. Again volume is not constant. It increases with time. So a continuous method of

12
calculating volume is a matter of great importance for smooth functioning of transportation

system. If volume data is not found on a continuous basis then the transportation system may fail

and the economy of the country may face a great difficulty.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

The present study is undertaken with the following objectives

To measure traffic volumes and note other related traffic characteristics (e.g. flow

composition, flow fluctuations etc.).

To determine hourly volume in terms passenger car equivalents (PCE) To determine

vehicle composition in traffic stream

To compare the results with standard design service volumes and identify remedies.

1.2 OUTLINE OF REPORT

The report has been documented in the following manner. The first chapter gives the primary

understanding of the problem statement and objectives of the study. The second chapter has been

devoted to review of earlier studies to set the guidelines for the present work. The criteria for site

selection, method of data collection and theory on traffic volume while the methods we adopted in

our data collection system have been discussed in chapter three. Analysis and discussion of results

are given in fourth chapter. The specific conclusions drawn from this study and recommendations

for further work are given in the fifth chapter.

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1.3 Scope of Traffic Volume Studies:

The traffic volume count study is carried out to get following useful information:

Magnitudes, classifications and the time and directional split of vehicular flows.

Magnitude is represented by volume of traffic. Vehicles are classified into some

predefined classes based on vehicle size and capacity. In a two-way road, vehicles

moving towards two directions are counted separately to get the proportion. Time and

directional split is useful to identify tidal flow.

Proportions of vehicles in traffic stream. Proportion of vehicles indicates whether public

or private transport dominates the traffic system. It also indicates the choice of road users.

Hourly, daily, yearly and seasonal variation of vehicular flows. These variations are

needed to establish expansion factors for future use. Using expansion factors, AADT can

be calculated from short count.

Flow fluctuation on different approaches at a junction or different parts of a road network

system.

1.3. a. Design purposes:

Structural and geometric design of pavements, bridge, and other highway facilities.

Structural design is based on repetition of wheel load on the pavement in entire design

life. AADT is needed with traffic growth rate to compute design wheel repetition.

Geometric design is based on peak hour volume to avoid congestion.

14
 Intersection design including minimum turning path, channelization, flaring, traffic

control devices viz. traffic signs, markings, signals based on approach volume and turning

proportions.

Pedestrian volume study is useful for designing sidewalks, pedestrian crossing etc.

1.3 b. Improvement purposes:

To allocate limited maintenance budget rationally, it is important to know the traffic

volume carried by a particular roadway section in order to decide the importance of the

road and fixing its relative priority.

In order to improve the roadway operating condition, it is important to know the traffic

volume.

 To examine the existing operating/service condition of a roadway section.


 To check the need (warrant) traffic control devices.

 To determine the type of improvement measure need to be taken.

 To measure the effectiveness of a traffic control measure

1.3 c. Planning Purposes:

Accurate information on the amount of traffic on the roads is vital for the planning of both

road maintenance and improvement policies

Traffic volume network analysis helps in deciding/planning if there is need for

 Improvement

 Expansion in terms of construction missing links, by-pass, alternative road etc.

15
 1.3 d. Dynamic Traffic Management Purposes:

Up to date and continuous flow/congestion information is essential for optimizing

 Traffic signal design and thereby improving junction performance


 Network productivity by providing information to the road user

1.3 e. Other Purposes:

Estimation of highway usage

Measurement of current demand of a facility

Estimation of trends

Economic feasibility evaluation

Computation of accident rates- accidents/100m vehicle-miles

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 Chapter Two

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The main problem in developing the analytical speed-flow relationship is heterogeneity of traffic

stream. The vehicles in the mix produce different impedance due to their varied static and

dynamic characteristics. Hence simply adding the number of vehicles does not give the authentic

speed flow relationship. For this reason, the vehicles are normally presented in terms of standard

type of vehicle using certain conversion factors. Generally, passenger car is adopted as standard

vehicle and this factor is known as passenger car unit (PCU). Many researchers have developed

methods to estimate PCU for a vehicle type. The interesting point to note is that each of these

studies has resulted into different PCU values for the same type of vehicle. There exists large

variation in PCU values being adopted in different parts of the world.

2.1 Traffic Survey

Traffic engineers and planners need information about traffic. They need information to design

and manage road and traffic system. They use the information for planning and designing traffic

facilities, selecting geometric standards, economic analysis and determination of priorities. They

use this to justify warrant of traffic control devices such as signs, traffic signals, pavement

markings, school and pedestrian crossings. The also use this information to study the effectiveness

of introduced schemes, diagnosing given situations and finding appropriate solutions, forecasting

the effects of projected strategies, calibrating and validating traffic models.

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 Transportation system is a dynamic system. Information about traffic must be regularly updated to

keep pace with ever-changing transportation system. Data must be collected and analyzed

systematically to get representative information.

Traffic surveys are the means of obtaining information about traffic. This is a systematic way of

collecting data to be used for various traffic engineering purposes.

2.2 Main purposes of traffic survey:

The main purposes of traffic survey are: traffic monitoring, traffic control and management, traffic

enforcement, traffic forecasting, model calibration and validating etc.

2.3 Parts of traffic studies:

Traffic studies include:

 Inventory of road traffic physical features


 Traffic stream characteristics- volume, speed, density, occupancy studies etc.

 Capacity studies of streets and intersections

 System usage studies- Travel time and delay, O-D survey

 Travel demand- home interview survey

 Road users cost- Value of travel time, vehicle operating cost

 Parking supply & demand studies

 Axle load survey

 Mass transit performance and usage studies

 Traffic accidents studies

 Environmental impact studies of transport

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 2.4 Traffic Volume Study

Traffic data are needed in research, planning, designing and regulation phases of traffic

engineering and are also used in establishing priorities and schedules of traffic improvements. The

traffic engineer must acquire general knowledge of traffic volume characteristics in order to

measure and understand the magnitude, composition, and time and route distribution of volume

for each area under his jurisdiction.

2.5 Definitions:

2.5 a. Volume/flow:

The total number of vehicles that pass over a given point or section of a lane or roadway during a

given time interval is called volume. It is the actual number of vehicle observed or predicted to

passing a point during a given interval.

2.5 b. Rate of flow:

The equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over a given point or section of a lane or

roadway during a time interval less than 1hr. usually 15 min.

2.5 c. Average Daily Traffic (ADT):

The average 24-hr volume at a given location over a defined time period less than one year. The

common application is to measure an ADT for each month of the year. Others are:

 Planning of highway activities


 Measurement of current demand

 Evaluation of existing traffic flow

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 2.5 d. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT):

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): The average 24-hr volume at a given location over a full

365 days year, estimated as the number of vehicles passing a site in a year divided by 365 days

(366 in leap year).

This is useful for:

 Estimation of highway user revenues


 Accident rates per 1000 vehicle-km

 Traffic volume trends

 Economic feasibility

 Development of hierarchical system of facilities

 Improvement and maintenance programmes

In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, which identified

a way to produce an AADT without seasonal or day-of-week biases by creating an "average of

averages." For every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week (MADW) is

calculated (84 per year). Each day-of-week's MADW is then calculated across months to calculate

an Annual Average Day of Week (AADW) (7 per year). Finally, the AADWs are averaged to

calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has adopted this

method as the preferred method in the [FHWA Traffic Monitoring Guide].

*AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs. American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials. 1992.

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2.6 Types of Volume Counts

Different types of traffic counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated use of the data to be

collected. These different types will now be briefly discussed below:

2.6 a. Cordon Counts

When information is required on vehicle accumulation within an area such as the central business

district (CBD) of a city, particularly during a specific time, a cordon count is undertaken. The area

for which the data are required is cordoned off by an imaginary closed loop; the area enclosed

within this loop is defined as the cordon area. Figure 1.1 shows such an area where the CBD of a

city is enclosed by the imaginary loop ABCDA. The intersection of each street crossing the

cordon line is taken as a count station; volume counts of vehicles and/or persons entering and

leaving the cordon area are taken. The information obtained from such a count is useful for

planning parking facilities, updating and evaluating traffic operational techniques, and making

long-range plans for freeway and arterial street systems.

Fig.2.1 Example of Station Locations for a Cordon Count (Traffic Highway Engineering)

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2.6 b. Screen Line Counts

In screen line counts, the study area is divided into large sections by running imaginary lines,

known as screen lines, across it. In some cases, natural and manmade barriers, such as rivers or

railway tracks, are used as screen lines. Traffic counts are then taken at each point where a road

crosses the screen line. It is usual for the screen lines to be designed or chosen such that they are

not crossed more than once by the same street. Collection of data at these screen-line stations at

regular intervals facilitates the detection of variations in the traffic volume and traffic flow

direction due to changes in the land-use pattern of the area.

2.6 c. Intersection Counts

Intersection counts are taken to determine vehicle classifications, through movements, and turning

movements at intersections. These data are used mainly in determining phase lengths and cycle

times for signalized intersections, in the design of channelization at intersections, and in the

general design of improvements to intersections.

2.6 d. Pedestrian Volume Counts

Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as subway stations, midblock, and

crosswalks. The counts are usually taken at these locations when the evaluation of existing or

proposed pedestrian facilities is to be undertaken. Such facilities may include pedestrian

overpasses or underpasses. Pedestrian counts can be made using the TDC-12 electronic manual

counter described earlier and shown in Figure 1.2. The locations at which pedestrian counts are

taken also include intersections, along sidewalks, and mid-block crossings. These counts can be

used for crash analysis, capacity analysis, and determining minimum signal timings at signalized

intersections.

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 Fig2.2 TDC-12 electronic manual counter

2.6 e. Periodic Volume Counts

In order to obtain certain traffic volume data, such as AADT, it is necessary to obtain data

continuously. However, it is not feasible to collect continuous data on all roads because of the cost

involved. To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume characteristics on an area-wide

basis, different types of periodic counts, with count durations ranging from 15 minutes to

continuous, are conducted; the data from these different periodic counts are used to determine

values that are then employed in the estimation of annual traffic characteristics. The periodic

counts usually conducted are:

 Continuous

 Control

 Coverage counts.

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2.6 e. i) Continuous Counts.

These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters showed in Figure1.3.

Stations at which continuous counts are taken as permanent count stations. In selecting permanent

count stations, the highways within the study area must first be properly classified. Each class

should consist of highway links with similar traffic patterns and characteristics. A highway link is

defined for traffic count purposes as a homogeneous section that has the same traffic

characteristics, such as AADT and daily, weekly, and seasonal variations in traffic volumes at

each point. Broad classification systems for major roads may include freeways, expressways, and

major arterials. For minor roads, classifications may include residential, commercial, and

industrial streets.

Fig 2.3 Continuous counting device

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2.6 e. ii) Control Counts.

These counts are taken at stations known as control-count stations, which are strategically located

so that representative samples of traffic volume can be taken on each type of highway or street in

an area-wide traffic counting program. The data obtained from control counts are used to

determine seasonal and monthly variations of traffic characteristics so that expansion factors can

be determined. These expansion factors are used to determine year-round average values from

short counts.

2.7 Expansion Factors

Hourly, daily, and monthly expansion factors can be determined using data obtained at continuous

count stations (Described in section 1.8. e.).

2.7 a. Hourly expansion factors

(HEFs) are determined by the formula:

Total volume for 24 hr

HEF=
period
Volume for particular hour

These factors are used to expand counts of durations shorter than 24 hour to 24-hour volumes by

multiplying the hourly volume for each hour during the count period by the HEF for that hour and

finding the mean of these products.

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25
2.7 b. Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are computed as

Average total volume for week

DEF=
Average volume for particular day

These factors are used to determine weekly volumes from counts of 24-hour duration by

multiplying the 24-hour volume by the DEF.

2.7 c. Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are computed as

AADT
MEF=
ADT for particular month

The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the ADT for a given month by multiplying this

volume by the MEF.

2.8 Reconnaissance survey

2.8 a. Purpose

The main objective of reconnaissance survey is of examine the general character of he area for the

purpose of determining the most feasible routes, or routes, for further more detailed investigations.

Data collected should be adequate to examine the feasibility of all the different routes in question,

as also to furnish the Engineer-in-charge with approximate estimates of quantities of costs, so as to

enable him to decide on the most suitable alternative or alternatives.

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26
The survey should also help in determining any deviations necessary in the basic geometric

standards to be adopted for the highway facility.

2.8 b. Survey Method

The reconnaissance survey may be conducted in the following sequence

(a) Study of topographical survey sheets, agricultural, soil, geological and meteorological

maps, and aerial photographs, if available.

(b) Aerial reconnaissance (where necessary and feasible)

(c) Ground reconnaissance (including another round of aerial reconnaissance for inaccessible

and difficult stretches, where called for).

2.8 c. Photogrammetry support to highway engineering:

Photogrammetry technology is also useful to the highway engineer in many ways. Large scale

maps on scales of 1:2,000 to 1:25,000 can be very precisely produced through photogrammetric

process. The contouring can also be produce, the common intervals depending on the height of the

camera. Very minute and precise measurements amounting to sub-mere accuracy can be obtained.

In other words, profile (with height values) and cross-sections across highway center-line can be

extracted from optical model.

2.8 d. Satellite remote sensing:

This technique is used with the help of satellites. At present, it gives resolution of the order of 6

metres. Photographic products of imagery are available from National Remote Sensing Agency,

Hyderabad on scales of 1:12,500, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Digital products are also available in

16

27
floppy cartridges and tapes. The cartridge/tape can be digitally processed in the computer and the

image on the monitor can be interpreted with the possibility of enhancement of quality through

manipulation of image processing software. Major advantages of satellite imagery is its

repeatability as orbiting satellites visit the same spot on earth every few weeks. Thus, the latest

information regarding the physical features (like, the extent of a town or urban area, etc.) can be

obtained to update on available map. The information on natural resources namely, geology,

geomorphology, land use, soil status (waterlogging, erosion, etc.), drainage, forest extent, etc. as

available may be most useful input for the planners of highway alignment.

2.8 e. Small format aerial photography (SFAP):

In case of large projects with mapping as one of the main objectives conventional aerial

photography in traditional format (23 cm x 23 cm) may also be useful. There are at least there

known agencies in India for such aerial photography, namely he National Remote Sensing Agency

(NRSA), Hyderabad, Air Survey Company, Calcutta and the India Air Force. All aerial

photography work requires clearance from the Ministry of Defence. The major advantages of

SFAP are:- Very large scale true colour photography can be done in scales upto 1:1,000 to 1:2,000

(upto scales of 1:10,000). Acquisition plan alongside highways can be suitably made in scale of

1:4,000. Monitoring of urban areas, villages and environment along the corridor are possible at

comparatively lower cost than ground surveys.

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2.8 f. Aerial Reconnaissance

An aerial reconnaissance will provide a bird’s eye view of eh alignments under consideration

along with the surrounding area. It will help to identify factors which call for rejection or

modification of any of the alignment. Final decision about the alignments to be studied in detail on

the ground could be taken on the basis of the aerial reconnaissance.

Fig2.4: Aerial Reconnaissance

2.8 g. Ground Reconnaissance

The various alternative routes located as a result of the map study are further examined in the field

by ground reconnaissance. As such, this part of the survey is an important link in the chain of

activities leading to selection of the final route.

General reconnaissance consists of general examination of the ground walking or riding along the

probable route and collecting all available information necessary for evaluating the same. In

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the case of hill sections, it may sometime be advantageous to start the reconnaissance from the

obligatory point situated close to the top. If an area is inaccessible for the purposes of ground

reconnaissance, recourse may have to aerial reconnaissance to clear the doubts.

While carrying out ground reconnaissance, it is advisable to leave reference pegs to facilitate

further survey operations.

2.8 h. Instruments for reconnaissance survey

Instruments generally used during ground reconnaissance include compass, Abney

level/Altimeter, Pedometer, Aneroid barometer, Clinometer, Ghat trace, etc. Walkie-talkie sets,

mobile phone and pagers are useful for communication, particularly in difficult terrain. Use of the

instruments mentioned above to obtain ground slopes, maximum gradients, elevation of critical

summits or stream crossing, and location of obligatory points, serve as a check on the maps being

used. In difficult hilly and forest terrain assistance of new technology, like Global Position System

(GPS) or Differential GPS (DGPS) may also be taken where the magnitude and importance of the

work justify their provision. GPS is a comparatively new technology which utilizes the satellites

orbiting around the earth. A minimum of four satellites are needed to indicate the coordinates (X,

Y, Z) on the ground at any time of day and night with accuracy of a few centimeters, two geo-

receivers are sued and this mode of using two GPS is known as differential GPS (DGPS).

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30
2.9 METHODS FOR VOLUME SURVEY

There are two major methods of counting vehicle for volume survey. They are-

a. Manual Counting Method and

b. Automatic counting method.

2.9. a. Manual Counting Method

In this method, vehicles are counted manually. There are two methods of manual counting:

i)Direct Method and

ii)Indirect Method.

2.9.a. i)Direct Method:

Data is counted by using hand tally and manual counters/enumerators.

Advantages: By this method traffic volume as well as vehicle classification and turning

proportions can be obtained. Data can be used immediately after collection. Disadvantages: This

method is not practicable for long duration count and when flow is high. Error is common

especially when volume is high. Count cannot be cross checked. Count cannot be done in bad

weather.

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31
2.9.a. ii)Indirect Method:

In this method, data is collected using video camera. Video is captured for long time and data is

collected later by rewinding.

Advantages: Besides traffic volume, several traffic parameters can be obtained from

recorded film. Data can be cross checked and quality can be ensured. This method is

applicable when volume is high. It is suitable for non-lane based traffic operation.

Disadvantages: A suitable elevated place is required for filming operation. Data cannot be

used immediately after collection. Data must be manually transcripted of recorded film.

This process is time consuming and tedious. Because of limitation of capacity of film, it is

not suitable for long duration counts. Quality of video recorded on film is dependent on

intensity of light and this method is not suitable in overcast days.

2.9.b. Automatic counting method:

In this method, vehicles are counted automatically without any human involvement. There are two

techniques of automatic counting: a) Contact system based on pneumatic, mechanical, magnetic or

piezo-electric method and b) Contactless system based on electrical/optical, ultrasound/infrared

radar, micro wave, CCTV/video image processing method etc. Advantages: This method is

suitable for long duration or continuous count. It is used as permanent counting station. It does not

need manpower and is free from human error. Data is obtained in usable format. It is less

expensive as manpower is not needed. Count is not affected by bad weather condition.

21

32
Disadvantages: It requires strict lane discipline. Non-motorized vehicles are hard to detect by this

method. Detailed classification of vehicle is not possible. Accuracy is less than manual method.

Installation cost is high.

2.10. Counting periods:

Vehicles can be counted for any duration. Duration of count depends on the objective of data

collection. For traffic control and management or operational studies short duration count at peak

period is conducted. For planning and design purpose, long duration count is conducted. For our

study purpose we collected volume data for 15 minutes, spot speed data for 30 minutes and travel

speed data for 30 minutes. In total we spent 1 hour 15 minutes for collecting data.

Determination of Number of Count Stations

The minimum sample size depends on the precision level desired. The commonly used precision

level for volume counts is 95–5. When the sample size is less than 30 and the selection of

counting stations is random, a distribution known as the student’s t distribution may be used to

determine the sample size for each class of highway links. The student’s t distribution is

unbounded (with a mean of zero) and has a variance that depends on the scale parameter,

commonly referred to as the degrees of freedom (v).

The degrees of freedom (v) is a function of the sample size; v N 1for the student’s t

distribution. The variance of the student’s t distribution is v , which indicates that as v

v 2

approaches infinity, the variance approaches 1.

22

33
Assuming that the sampling locations are randomly selected, the minimum sample number is

given as

2
t2 (S )
n /2,N 1 d2
1 ( 1 )t2 (S2 )

N /2,N 1 d2
where,

n = minimum number of count locations required

t = value of the student’s t distribution with (1 - α/2) confidence level (N-1 degrees of freedom)

N = total number of links (population) from which a sample is to be selected

α = significance level

S = estimate of the spatial standard deviation of the link volumes

d = allowable range of error

2.11 Previous works

The present study is essentially about the importance of traffic volume in traffic engineering of

urban and suburban road links, in particular the literature on effect of traffic volume, speed-flow

relationships, passenger car equivalents, peak hour factor, flow variations and traffic capacity and

level of serviceability (LOS).

Van Aerde (1995) presented a generic speed-flow-density relationship, which was successfully

applied and calibrated for both freeways and arterials in both the micro and the macro domains.

The model is a single regime model, but appears to be able to describe both congested and un-

23

34
congested traffic conditions. The model described by Van Aerde, however, is flexible enough to

allow speeds at capacity to be set in excess of Greenshields value of half the free-flow speed

and to allow jam density to be specified. In other words, the Greenshields model can be

described as being a special case of the more general Van Aerde model. Various curves for a

freeway in Twin Cities, USA is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.5 Van Curves to Freeway Data (Twin Cities, USA) (van Aerde, 1995)

Satyanarayana (2012) studied the effect of traffic volume, its composition and stream speed on

passenger car equivalents . Method proposed by Chandra is used for developing the PCU factors

and found that For two axle trucks PCU values are found to increase with an increase in

compositional share of respective vehicle types in the traffic stream. The PCU of two wheelers

practically remains unaffected by its compositional share in the traffic stream. Compositional

share of 2W at different locations were observed in the range of 31.69% to 34.23% whereas

increase in PCU values are 1.1% only and it may be attributed due to high maneuverability. In

24

35
slow moving traffic PCU values of bullock carts are increasing with the decreasing in the

compositional share in the stream.

V.T Hamizh Arasan and Krishnamurthy (2008) provided an insight into the complexity of the

vehicular interaction in heterogeneous traffic. The PCU estimates, made through microscopic of

simulation, for the different types of vehicles of heterogeneous traffic, for a wide range traffic

volume and roadway conditions indicate that the PCU value of a vehicle significantly changes

with change in traffic volume and width of roadway.

Ahmed Al-Kaisy (2005) found that the HCM suggested PCU factors for heavy vehicles is

applicable only under free-flow conditions and hence, attempted to derive passenger car

equivalents for heavy vehicles during congestion. It is found from the review of the literature that

several studies on estimation of PCU values of vehicles in heterogeneous traffic have been

conducted.

Lum K.M, Fan H.S.L, Lam (1998) observed traffic volume and travel time data at a number of

arterial roads in Singapore to analyse the speed-flow relationships for radial and ring arterial

roads. The general speed-flow model incorporating "minimum delay perintersection" and

"frequency of intersections per kilometer", as model parameters, reflects better speed-flow

characteristics of traffic on arterial roads.

Maitra (1999) proposed 10 levels of services with 9 in a stable flow zone (conventional LOS A to

E region) and one representing the unstable flow (presently LOS F), as a means of quantifying

congestion on urban roads. They estimated capacity values of study locations on urban roads as

3,500 and 4,500 PCU per hour for road widths of 7.0 and 10.3 m respectively in one direction.

25

36
Marwah and Bhuvanesh (2000) suggested level of service classification for urban heterogeneous

traffic. They considered journey speed of cars, journey speed of motorised two wheelers,

concentration, and road occupancy to define LOS.

Chandra.S and Prasad N.V (2004) found that the PCU factors calculated at different sections of

urban roads vary substantially across the sections. Capacity varies with physical and traffic

conditions and traffic composition. Capacity of a multilane divided urban road increases linearly

with increase in the proportion of two-wheelers in traffic stream. It is estimated that capacity of an

urban road section increases by approximately 9 percent for every 10 percent increase in the

proportion of 2-wheeler. The capacity of a section with side friction is approximately12 percent

lower as compared to a section with no side friction.

Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), (1988) New Delhi to determine the PCU value for

different types of vehicles comprises of linear regression of the speed of cars with volume of

different categories of vehicles. The method suggests collection of large amount of data on speed

of cars under traffic volume and composition and fitting multiple linear regression equations.

Ramanayya (1988) developed a computer simulation model relating average speeds of the traffic

stream, the traffic volume and composition of traffic stream. The model could recognize eight

different categories of vehicles in the stream and it could be run for any combination of slow and

fast moving vehicles. Traffic stream models, relating speed of vehicle type with flow and

percentage of slow moving vehicles, were developed for each vehicle type. The models, so

derived are given in the following equations.

26

37
Vcar = 101.42 - 21.48 log Q – 30.38P

Vbus = 95.12 – 20.75 log Q – 30.39P

Vtruck =92.8 – 21.81 log Q – 19.61P

Vauto =85.0 – 18.35 log Q – 30.02P

Vmotorcycle =85.9– 16.7 log Q – 23.41P

Where,

V= average speed (km/hr),

Q= average traffic flow (veh/hr),

P= percentage of slow moving vehicles in the traffic stream.

The above relationships indicate that proportion of slow moving vehicles has negative effect on

speed of a vehicle type. Using the above relationships, design vehicle units (DVU) were derived in

terms of western passenger car and these are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 DVU for Different LOS (Ramanayya, 1988)

Type of vehicle LOSA LOSB LOSC

% slow vehicles % slow vehicles % slow vehicles

10 30 50 10 30 50 10 30 50
Car 4.26 8.22 15.7 3.94 7.58 14.2 3.28 6.28 12.0
Bus 1.26 8.22 9 4.07 8.00 9 3.51 6.88 0
Truck 3.57 6.52 15.7 3.27 5.56 15.6 3.38 4.93 13.5
Auto 2.26 3.43 9 2.48 3.75 3 2.44 3.69 1
Scooter 2.17 4.11 15.0 1.94 3.69 10.0 1.56 2.98 7.77

From Table 2.1 it is seen that DVU of truck is consistently less than the corresponding value for

bus. Also, the design vehicle unit for scooter is more than that for auto rickshaw. The physical

27

38
size of auto is 3 times more than the projected rectangular area of a scooter and therefore, more

DVUs for the latter seems to be misleading.

Tanaboriboon and Aryal (1990) studied the effect of vehicle size on capacity of multilane

highway in Thailand. All vehicles moving on the road were classified in to three major categories;

small, medium and large. Headway was observed for different combinations of leading and

trailing vehicles and the basic capacity was determined by considering the reciprocal of the

average minimum time headway adopted by small vehicle. Medium sized vehicles were not found

to have affected the lane capacity in any way, but the presence of large vehicle, had an adverse

impact on the traffic stream. The average headway was found to have increased with an increase

in the percentage of large vehicles in stream. This in turn, led to reduction in capacity of the traffic

lane.

Chandra S, Kumar V and Sikdar (1995) made a comprehensive study on capacity of urban

roads. It was emphasized that PCU values for vehicle type is dynamic in nature and depends on all

factors affecting the behavior of vehicle in the traffic stream. Data collected at various at various

mid-block sections of Delhi were used to study the dynamic nature of PCU for a vehicle type.

They observed that the PCU for a vehicle type decreases with increase in its own proportion in the

traffic stream.

Parker (1996) observed that knowledge of traffic composition plays an important role in

determining capacity. It was found that the percentage of heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) within

traffic stream has a major effect on capacity due to length, limited maneuverability, lower desired

speed and engine power to weight ratio. As the presence of HGV’s in the traffic stream increases,

the capacity reduces in term of throughout of vehicle per hour.

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39
Chandra and Sikdar (2000) observed that PCU for a vehicle type is mainly controlled by

homogeneity/ heterogeneity of the traffic stream, which in turn, depend upon the relative

proportion of different types of vehicle. The basic philosophy involved in the development of

concept of dynamic PCU was that capacity estimation in a common unit must be same irrespective

of stream composition under given physical and control conditions. They developed a computer

program to evaluate PCU for a vehicle type of urban roads.

Golias (2003) examined the influence of taxi behavior on urban traffic conditions. Using

computer simulation and the Taxi Equivalence Factor (TEF), a concept similar to the passenger

car equivalents for heavy vehicles, the impacts of taxi traffic on the capacity, and delays at urban

road sections is quantified. The taxi equivalence factor is based either on capacity or on delay.

Simulated and field data were used to derive TEF and sensitivity analysis is carried out in relation

to a variety of traffic parameters. The findings suggest that the most important factor influencing

the TEF related to traffic conditions is the number of traffic lanes. In particular, increase in vehicle

travel time increases for one lane roadways in the presence of taxis may exceed those

corresponding for two lane road by up to about 40%. An increase in the v/c ratio from 0.8 to 1.0

causes increases in the delay-based TEF values that may reach up to about 90%. The TEF

decreases again, indicating that as the system becomes saturated, the effect of taxis on traffic

decreases.

Basu D, Maitra S.R (2006) studied the effect of traffic volume and its composition on Passenger

Car Equivalency (PCE). Taking the stream speed as Measure of Equivalence (MOE), a

methodology is demonstrated for the estimation of PCE. The reduction in stream speed caused by

marginal increment in traffic volume by a vehicle type is compared with that of caused by an

29

40
old technology car, which is taken as the reference vehicle for the estimation of PCE. The study

reveals that PCE is affected by traffic volume and its composition. For all vehicle types, PCE

values are found to increase with an increase in traffic volume, but the effect is predominant for

heavy vehicles. The PCE of two wheelers practically remains unaffected by its compositional

share in the traffic stream.

Arkatkar (2011) studied the effect of variation of traffic volume, road width, magnitude of

upgrade and its length on PCU value; by using traffic-flow simulation model HETEROSIM. Field

data collected on traffic flow characteristics are used in calibration and validation of the

simulation model. The validated simulation model is then used to derive PCU values for different

types of vehicles and it indicate that the model is capable of replicating the heterogeneous traffic

flow on mid-block sections of intercity roads, for different roadway conditions, to a satisfactory

extent.

Andrew P, Tarko and Rafaell (2005) investigated the variability of PHF over time and across

locations. The day-to-day variability of PHF was found to be as strong as the site-to-site

variability. This finding prompts for estimating the PHF based on multiple field measurements or,

where measurements are not possible, for using a model that return s the average value of PHF.

This paper presents such a model, which links PHF with hourly volume, population, and time of

day, and demonstrates that a large portion of the variability in the sample of observations can

either be explained with the model or be attributed to the day-to -day fluctuation.

The Highway Capacity Manual advises that in the absence of field measurements, reasonable

approximations for the PHF may be made as follows: 0.95 for congested conditions, 0.92 for

urban areas, and 0.88 for rural areas. General guidelines for determining future peak hour factors

41
 can be found in the Development Review Guidelines, and are summarized as follows: 0.85 for

Minor Street inflows and outflows, 0.90 for Minor Arterials, 0.95 for Major Streets, unless better

information is available.

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42
 Chapter Three

Methodology

Location: Location of the spot for traffic volume survey was chosen to be from Shiva Circle in Yemmiganuru.

43
Location: Location of the spot for traffic volume survey was chosen to be from Y.S.R Circle

in Yemmiganuru

Location: Location of the spot for traffic volume survey was chosen to be from M.G petrol

bunk Circle in Yemmiganuru

We stood by the side of the road and different vehicles were counted by different persons. We

selected one enumerator among us who was in charge of time. She commanded us when to

jump from current time step we were working to next time step.

Date: Data for volume study was collected on 20 June 2013. It was Thursday and it was a

weekday.

Time: Time of data collection for volume study was different for different groups however for

group-4 the time was from 9:00 am to 9:15 am

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44
Weather Condition: It was initially a sunny day but afterwards it became cloudy.

Observation: Classified Vehicle Counts.

Method: Direct Manual Method.

Duration: 15 minutes (Short Count)

Equipment: Stop watch, Tally sheet, Clip board, video camera etc. (A blank tally sheet is

provided in the appendix)

Number of Enumerators: Six.

Methodology of reconnaissance survey

Before going for the actual work we have conducted a reconnaissance survey on the previous

day of actual work. Due to lack of instruments we could not adopt any of the methods

described in section 2.9. We just visited the spot of study and divided the whole road length

into five equal sections. And then we have selected the reference points where we collected

volume data. And on the day of operation we went directly to the spot and collected volume

data. But if we could conduct the actual reconnaissance work then we would have good

understanding of the whole formation of the study zone.

45
Fig 3.2: A real time snapshot of the road while counting vehicles

Fig3.3: Manual Counter which we used while counting vehicles

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46
47
48
 Chapter Four

DATA ANALYSIS
TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY DATA

TABLE-1 No.of vechiles at SHIVA CIRCLE

SL.NO DATE&TIME NO OF 2W NO OF 3W NO OF 4W NO OF HEAVY

VEHICLES
1 27-02-2023 1600 305 42 21
8:00 to 10:00 AM
2 27-02-2023 785 172 25 15
4:00 to 6:00 PM
3 28-03-2023 1002 210 72 20
8:00 to 10:00 AM
4 28-03-2023 1550 250 54 15
4:00 to 6:00 PM
5 01-03-2023 805 182 23 21
8:00 to 10:00 AM
6 01-03-2023 970 225 45 42
4:00 to 6:00 PM
7 02-03-2023 1490 265 59 24
8:00 to 10:00 AM
8 02-03-2023 972 147 45 20
4:00 to 6:00 PM
9 03-03-2023 1120 210 110 35
8:00 to 10:00 AM
10 03-03-2023 1600 200 70 30
4:00 to 6:00 PM
11 04-03-2023 1000 305 52 12
8:00 to 10:00 AM
12 04-03-2023 1200 230 49 20
4:00 to 6:00 PM

49
 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY DATA

TABLE-2 No.of vechiles at Y.S.R CIRCLE

SL.NO DATE&TIME NO OF 2W NO OF 3W NO OF 4W NO OF HEAVY

VEHICLES
1 05-03-2023 1600 205 150 45
8:00 to 10:00 AM
2 05-03-2023 980 165 80 25
4:00 to 6:00 PM
3 06-03-2023 1120 270 140 35
8:00 to 10:00 AM
4 06-03-2023 1466 279 170 40
4:00 to 6:00 PM
5 07-03-2023 1005 140 72 30
8:00 to 10:00 AM
6 07-03-2023 1250 225 110 31
4:00 to 6:00 PM
7 08-03-2023 1250 330 152 36
8:00 to 10:00 AM
8 08-03-2023 930 155 79 20
4:00 to 6:00 PM
9 09-03-2023 1175 210 105 24
8:00 to 10:00 AM
10 09-03-2023 1460 270 143 28
4:00 to 6:00 PM
11 10-03-2023 750 145 82 15
8:00 to 10:00 AM
12 10-03-2023 1205 198 115 35
4:00 to 6:00 PM

50
 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY DATA

TABLE-3 No.of vehicles at MG PETROL BUNK CIRCLE

SL.NO DATE & TIME NO_OF_2W NO_OF_3W NO_OF_4W NO OF HEAVY VEHICLES

1 11/03/23 1500 260 185 42

8.00 to 10.00AM

2 11/03/23 1050 165 150 30

4.00 to 6.00PM

3 12/03/23 1305 240 138 87

8.00 to 10.00AM

4 12/03/23 1360 185 85 45

4.00 to 6.00PM

5 13/03/23 1000 150 66 31

8.00 to 10.00AM

6 13/03/23 1205 280 125 95

4.00 to 6.00PM

7 14/03/23 1450 130 80 24

8.00 to 10.00AM

8 14/03/23 930 175 50 19

4.00 to 6.00PM

9 15/03/23 1020 350 105 50

8.00 to 10.00AM

10 16/03/23 1605 165 115 29

4.00 to 6.00PM

11 17/03/23 900 150 76 41

8.00 to 10.00AM

12 17/03/23 1100 225 120 41

4.00 to 6.00PM

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
4.6 Flow fluctuation:

Table 4.8 Flow fluctuation table

Group ADT Group ADT

1 32173.95 6 31673.48
From flyover to 2 32564.73 From shatrasta 7 34573.46
shatrasta 3 28896.91 to flyover 8 29507.07
4 27971.39 9 38542.93
5 26017.51 10 32125.96
Total ADT 147624.5 Total ADT 166422.9

Table 4.9 Percent ADT

Group %ADT Group %ADT

1 21.794455 6 19.03193
From flyover to 2 22.059165 From shatrasta 7 20.77446
shatrasta 3 19.5746064 to flyover 8 17.73018
4 18.9476617 9 23.15963
5 17.6241118 10 19.30381

24

23 23.16

22.059
22
21.794
21.054
21
21.416520.774
20.413
% ADT

20 19.575

19 19.032 18.948 19.304

18.6525 18.464
18
17.73 17.624
17

16
9:00-10:00 10:00-11:00 11:00-12:00 12:00-13:00 13:00-14:00
Time
. Flyover to Shatrasta Shatrasta to Flyover Average

Figure 4.5 Flow fluctuation curve

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61
 Chapter Five

Conclusion and Recommendation

The following conclusions are drawn from present study.

5.1. Discussion on vehicle composition:

Vehicle composition shows that most of the vehicles in the traffic stream were light vehicles.

Only twenty seven percent (27%) was buses. The reason for high proportion of light vehicle is

the proximity of the location to residential area of high income group people. The light

vehicles were not highly occupied. But buses were almost fully occupied and people were

travelling by standing due to lack of seat in them. It can be assumed that, more people were

travelling by bus though their occurrences were low. We were settled on a suggestion that if

the number of busses could be increased then the traffic system would become more efficient.

Again we saw that the busses were very much old and some of them did not have smooth front

glasses. So a huge modification is recommended in the public transportation system.

5.2. Discussion on directional distribution:

53 percent of traffic flow was towards flyover which indicates tidal flow towards Mohakhali.

It was morning rush hour. So flow was higher towards the city center. Only 47 percent of

traffic was flowing towards Shatrasta. If another vehicle count was done in evening rush hour,

opposite scenario would have been seen.

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62
5.3. Discussion on flow fluctuation:

To draw flow fluctuation curve, it was assumed that volume for five continuous hours were

counted, although all vehicles were counted within one hour and fifteen minutes. Each group

counted vehicles for 15 minutes. Flow rate was calculated from that short count data and

plotted. The average flow fluctuation curve shows two peaks at 10:00-11:00 hrs and 12:00-

13:00 hrs.

5.4 Recommendations

1. Optimum vehicle composition of a traffic flow consists of 40% public transport or BUS

while there was only 27% public transport in our study road.

2. The buses we observed on the road were too much old that they could not maneuver easily

although the maneuverability of buses is originally low. So replacing these old buses with new

ones is highly recommended.

3. Bicycle should have specific lanes of their own which typically is placed beside the

footpath/shoulder. But there was not any specific lane in the road we studied. So it is

recommended that a lane system should be introduced to increase efficiency of the road at the

same time there should be a bicycle specific lane.

4. NMT or electrical low speed vehicles should not be permitted in this type of arterial road.

Although they typically travel on the left lane but they create a drag force which slows down

the high speed vehicles which creates congestion.

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63
5. There were some large container trucks observed on the road. Congestion can be slightly

avoided if these vehicles were allowed only at off peak hours.

5.5 Limitations

1. The major limitation of this volume study was the survey was conducted for 15 minutes

only, whereas for proper results the survey should be conducted for at least 3 hours

2. Number of enumerators was 5 to 6 persons per group where for complete and precise

collection of data at least 15 to 20 persons were required for each group.

3. We collected data for representative portion of traffic stream. However if it was possible to

collect data for each and every type of vehicle then a better scenario could have been

presented.

5.6 Recommendations for future work

The present study is focused mainly on traffic volume only. Speed-flow studies are useful to

evaluate the more parameters. There is a scope on speed flow studies on urban road links for

future work.

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