INTRODUCTION to

Spatial Thinking
JÁNOS TAMÁS
Contents

• Nature of geographic and digital information

• Definition of „GIS“
• Components of GIS
• Environment of GIS
• Development of GIS
• Importance of GIS
• Examples of application

Source: AADC
Geographic Information System
• Geographic information respectively spatial information is information about
places on the Earth's surface. It provides knowledge about „where“ something is
and „what“ is at a given location.
• The „where is” and „what is“ are in GIS terms „positional data“ and „attribute
data“. Positional data (coordinates or other location information) describe the
specific location of features in space, whereas attribute data are non-spatial
records of the real-world feature.
• In order to get usage of geographic information in a GIS, geographic information
has to be expressed in digital form.
GIS
• A GIS (Geographic Information System) is a computer-based tool that
helps us visualize information with patterns and relationships that
aren't otherwise apparent.
• The ability to ask complex questions about data and analyze many
features at once, then instantly see the results on a map is what
makes GIS a powerful tool for creating information.
• GIS can be used in many disciplines such as resource management,
criminology, urban planning, marketing, transportation, etc. Primarily
GIS is used for scientific analysis but is now being implemented in
other disciplines.
GIS Principles
• 1. The computer is an unavoidable technology in our time. We are
living in the digital age, which has become an important element in
nearly all professions.
• 2. Computer training in most scientific disciplines is essential.
Without this technology all professionals will be handicapped.
• 3. The GIS is an inevitable technology that will be used in all
scientific fields. The GIS has become the accepted and standard
means of using spatial data.
• 4. GIS is more Accurate Flexible, Object Efficient, and Rapid Fun
comparing with the traditional method of spatial data inventory.
GIS Principles
• 5. GIS is replacing traditional cartography. Much of traditional “pen &
ink” cartography done by skilled draftsperson and artist is being
replaced by GIS.
• 6. GIS is opening new horizons. New mode of analysis and
applications are constantly discovered.
•
Geographic Information Systems
• There are lot of definitions for the term „Geographic Information Systems“, each
developed from a different perspective or disciplinary origin.
• In general, they can be split in two groups: those with a technological perspective and
those with an organizational perspective.
• Burrough (1986) describes GIS as a powerful set of tools for collection, storing, retrieving
at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world. Cown (1988)
defines GIS as a decision support system involving data in a problem-solving
environment.
Defining Geographic Information Systems
(GIS)
• The common ground between information processing and
the many fields using spatial analysis techniques.
(Tomlinson, 1972)
• A computerised database management system for the
capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial
(locationally defined) data. (NCGIA, 1987)
• A decision support system involving the integration of
spatially referenced data in a problem solving
environment. (Cowen, 1988)
 Geographic Information System:
intuitive description
• A map with a database behind it.
• A virtual representation of the
real world and its infrastructure.
• A consistent “as-built” of the real
world, natural and manmade
Which is
• queried to support on-going
operations
• summarized to support strategic
decision making and policy
formulation
• analyzed to support scientific
inquiry
Layers contain Features or Surfaces

Features are geographic objects

represented by a point, line or
polygon
□ Polygons (filled or unfilled) for
things large enough to have
boundaries
□ Lines for things too narrow to
be polygons
□ Points for things too small to
be polygons
Layers contain Features or Surfaces

565 573 582 590

575 580 595 600

579 581 597 601

580 600 620 632

-Surface composed of matrix of square

cells, each containing a value for its
location, e.g. elevation.
 Features have locations
Anc+in Y axis
Coordinate Systems
AuoTin Y = 3,300,200 m
can be orthogonal or
"warped" (projected)

X axis
GIS software
transforms coordinates
from one projection to
another
Origin (0, 0)

12
Features can be displayed at different scales

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1 : 40,000

1 : 150,000
Zooming, scaling, variable
detail rendering
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 Features are linked to information

- Every Feature (e.g. road) has several

Attributes (e.g. name, length) in an
Attribute Table.
Spatial relationships can be queried
& What crosses what?
& Proximity - What is within a certain
distance of what?
& Containment - What’s inside of what?
& Which features share common
attributes?
& Many others
Geographic Information
Geographic Information
=
Positional Information
(e.g. coordinates, postal code, street address, etc.)
+
Attribute Information
(e.g. name, size, price, etc.)

Source: ESRI (1998)

Data and Information
• Terms are often interchanged, although there is one fundamental
difference.
• Data: uninterpreted, raw
attributes of features
• Information:
interpretation
of multiple data
Digital Information I
• GIS needs geographic data expressed in digital form
• Computer
„alphabet“
consists only
of 0 and 1.
Digital Information II
• Computer use binary and ASCII coding system to store information.
• Numbers with decimals are called floating points and without are
called integer.
• Textual data are called character string.
GIS--What is it?
No easy answer anymore!
• Geographic/Geospatial Information
• information about places on the earth’s surface
• knowledge about “what is where when”
(Don’t forget time!)
• Geographic/geospatial: synonymous

• GIS--what’s in the S?
• Systems: the technology
• Science: the concepts and theory
• Studies: the societal context
GI Systems, Science and Studies
Which will we do?
• Systems
• technology for the acquisition and management of spatial information
The focus of this course (GISC 6381 GIS Fundamentals)
• Science
• comprehending the underlying conceptual issues of representing data and
processes in space-time
• the theory and concepts behind the technology
Introduce enough of the science to apply the systems correctly and understand their
capabilities and limitations
• Studies
• understanding the social, legal and ethical issues associated with the application
of GISy and GISc
 How GIS differs from Related Systems
• DBMS--typical MIS data base contains implicit but not explicit locational information
• city, county, zip code, etc. but no geographical coordinates
• is 100 N. High around the corner or across town from 200 E Main?
• automated mapping (AM) --primarily two-dimensional display devices
• thematic mapping (choropleth,etc such as SAS/GRAPH, DIDS, business mapping
software) unable to relate different geographical layers (e.g zip codes and counties)
• automated cartography--graphical design oriented; limited database ability
• facility management (FM) systems--
• lack spatial analysis tools
• CAD/CAM (computer aided design/drafting)--primarily 3-D graphic creation
(engineering design) & display systems
• don’t reference via geographic location
• CAD sees the world as a 3-D cube, GIS as a 3-D sphere
• limited (if any) database ability (especially for non-spatial data)
• scientific visualization systems--sophisticated multi-dimensional graphics, but:
• lack database support
• lack two-dimensional spatial analysis tools
 Components of GIS

• People and Organizations

GIS experts, GIS operators, computer staff, etc.
• Data locational, temporal, attribute
• Methods statistics, spatial analysis, etc.
• Hardware workstations, digitizers, plotters, etc.
• Software to perform analysis, retrieval, etc.
Geographic Information Technologies
• GPS:
provides positional data
• Remote Sensing:
captures spatial information
without touching the surface
• DBMS:
applied for storage and retrieval of spatial data

Source: CCRS (1998)

GIScience

• Need for technical and conceptual education increased during last

years.
• Resulted in GIScience which explores all topics concerning GIS
(related) technology.
• Research is interdisciplinary (cognitive science, computer science,
geography, etc.)
 Why use GIS?
... because GIS can answer the following questions:
• Where is?
• What is there?
• What has changes since?
• What is the best route
between?
• What relations exist
between?
• What if?
Source: WHITE/ GREGORY/ SOUTHALL (1998):
Cholera Deaths in London, 19.07. – 02.10.1866
GIS has particular value when you need to answer
questions about location, patterns, trends and
conditions
• Location. Where is the nearest bookshop? Where are stone age settlements
located in Europe?Where are areas of forestry in which Norwegian Spruce trees
can be found?
• Patterns. Where do high concentrations of students live in this city? What is the
flow of traffic along this motorway? What is the distribution of crime incidents in
London?
• Trends. How are patterns of retailing changing in response to the development of
out-of-town superstores? Where have glaciers retreated in the European Alps?
Where have changes to the population of polar bears occurred?
• Conditions. Where can I find holiday accommodation that is within 1km of awind
surfing beach and accessible by public transport? Where is there flat land within
500m of a major highway? Where are there over 100,000 potential customers
within a 5 mile radius of a railway station?
GIS
• GIS is seen as a tool to bring together disparate data and
information about the character and activities that take
place in the evaluated region.
• Data from maps, aerial photographs, satellite images,
ecological field projects, pollution monitoring programmes,
socioeconomic surveys and tourism studies have been
mapped and overlaid to identify areas of compatibility and
conflict.
Using GIS for identifying conservation zones

(Source: Adapted from Petch et al., 1995)

GIS as an Integrating Technology
• GIS is able to integrate
• different data sources ( e.g. ground survey, remote
sensing, etc.)
• different disciplines
• Obstacles:
• „specialized“ software
• missing exchange standards, etc.

Source: ONWORD Press (1999)

GIS as decision support

• GIS reveals the pros and cons of alternatives!

• Decisions have to be made during the
• Intelligence Phase (searching for conditions to be changed)
• Design Phase (developing a conceptual model)
• Choice phase (choosing an alternative)
GIS as decision supporting tool
• The emphases is on the technology and its use in every activity that range
from agriculture, industry, business, social, research and education.
• The advancement in technology changed our world and our approaches to
meet our need to rely completely on the technology and data.
• The value of information in our time becomes vital and important for
development. GIS itself is an important module of the information system.
The economy of all industrial countries and many other nations all over the
globe, become more dependent on services.
• This means that the current economy rely more and more on computers,
networking, accurate information and data. This shift required a mass of
skilled labors that are capable to deal with the technology and data
processing.
A GIS performs six fundamental operations
for finding solutions to real-world problems.
• 1. Capture data: You can add data from many sources to a GIS, and you
can also create your own data from scratch.
• 2. Store data: You can store and manage information about the real
world in ways that makes sense for your application.
• 3. Query data: You can ask complex questions about features based on
their attributes or their location and get quick results.
• 4. Analyze data: You can integrate multiple datasets to find features that
meet specific criteria and create information useful for problem solving.
• 5. Display data: You can display features based on their attributes, a
powerful feature you'll come to appreciate.
• 6. Present data: You can create and distribute high-quality maps, graphs,
and reports to present your analysis results in a compelling way to your
audience.
GIS computer system can run
• 1. Storage: Digital and database storage (e.g.shp, dxf ..format and dbs
format).
• 2. Management of Data: Integration of the database into the GIS system
(e.g. Geodatabase).
• 3. Retrieval: The capacity to view the various database data formats
(AutoCAD, Dbf, Shapefile, and Coverage).
• 4. Conversion: Convert different sets of data from one form to another
(DXF to Coverage or Shapefile).
• 5. Analysis: Manipulating data to produce new information (geology
map).
• 6. Modeling: Simplifying the data and its process (fuzzy logic model)
• 7. Display: Presenting the output works (maps and reports).
Data types include the following

• Maps (Tiff, Jpeg, etc.)

• Images from aircraft and satellite
• Global Positioning System (GPS): (Coordinates, elevation)
• Text data (report and text)
• Tabular data (excel file)
 The Five M's
Mapping
Accuracy, Reproducibility, Portability, Customization
Measuing
Automation, Accuracy
Modeling
Scaling, Verifiability, Analytical Tools
Monitoring
Automation, Flexibility
Management
Storage, Updating, Data Integrity, Security
 GIS Advantages:
Manage & organize vast amounts of
geospatial data
Rapid updating, info. dispersal
VERIFIABLE methods
Modeling, hypothesis-testing,
PREDICTION
Automate & customize map production
 GIS Drawbacks
Errors play significant role in queried results -
not always apparent
Abstract concepts difficult to implement -
different approaches may yield different
answers
Pretty pictures can obscure uncertainties -
promotes uncritical thinking, black-box
approach
 ESRI - Scalable Product Lines
Desktop
Software

Data
Multiuser
Data files
geodatabase
Multiuser
geodatabase storage

“Personal” GIS “Departmental GIS” “Enterprise” GIS

ArcGIS Desktop Levels
 ArcGIS Licensing Levels
ArcView — Make maps, do queries, some spatial
analysis, some editing (shapefiles, personal
geodatabases) - included with GTK ArcGIS Desktop
ArcEditor - plus edit multi-user geodatabases; more
tools in toolbox
ArcInfo - full functionality; comes with ArcInfo
Workstation
Current ArcGIS = v. 10.8 and ArcGIS Pro
Licensing and “Floating Seats”
Online GIS -Google Maps
Multidisciplinary
• GIS has been called or defined as an enabling technology because of the breadth
of uses in the following disciplines as a tool.
• Disciplines that traditionally have studied the earth, particularly its surface and
near surface in either physical or human aspect, include agriculture, geology,
geophysics, oceanography, agriculture, ecology, biogeography, environmental
science, geography, global science, sociology, political science, epidemiology,
anthropology, demography, and many more.
 Why Study GIS?
• 80% of local government activities estimated to be geographically based
• plats, zoning, public works (streets, water supply, sewers), garbage collection, land
ownership and valuation, public safety (fire and police)
• a significant portion of state government has a geographical component
• natural resource management
• highways and transportation
• businesses use GIS for a very wide array of applications
• retail site selection & customer analysis
• logistics: vehicle tracking & routing
• natural resource exploration (petroleum, etc.)
• precision agriculture
• civil engineering and construction
• Military and defense
• Battlefield management
• Satellite imagery interpretation
• scientific research employs GIS
• geography, geology, botany
• anthropology, sociology, economics, political science
• Epidemiology, criminology
 What GIS Applications Do:
manage, analyze, communicate
• make possible the automation of activities involving geographic data
• map production
• calculation of areas, distances, route lengths
• measurement of slope, aspect, viewshed
• logistics: route planning, vehicle tracking, traffic management
• allow for the integration of data hitherto confined to independent
domains (e.g property maps and air photos).
• by tieing data to maps, permits the succinct communication of complex
spatial patterns (e.g environmental sensitivity).
• provides answers to spatial queries (how many elderly in Richardson live
further than 10 minutes at rush hour from ambulance service?)
• perform complex spatial modelling (what if scenarios for transportation
planning, disaster planning, resource management, utility design)
GIS System Architecture and Components

Data Input

Query Input Geographic Database

Output: Display and Transformation and

Reporting Analysis
Geographic Information Systems
• The main part of GIS
• People and Organizations (GIS experts, GIS operators,
computer staff, web community etc.)
• Data (location, temporal, attribute)
• Methods(geostatistics, spatial analysis, etc.)
• Hardware (job computers, sensors, plotters, etc.)
• Software to perform analysis, retrieval, etc.
Relationships of GIS Components
• The most important parts of a GIS infrastructure are end users. Each user
and their organizations will require a GIS with emphasis on a specific set of
functions. Moreover, GIS technology in an agricultural organization is of
limited value without people knowing how to apply it to real world
problems.
• Data is the foundation of GIS applications. Every Precision Agriculture GIS
system should be able to absorb data in a variety of formats, not just in the
native format of the particular GIS. Geographic data can be collected in-
house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or occasionally
purchased from a commercial data provider.
Relationships of GIS Components
• GIS operates only effectively if it is properly integrated into the entire
e.g.agribusiness strategy and operation. Besides necessary investments in
hardware and software, also the retraining of personnel to utilize the new
technology is imperative.
• Software is needed to run GIS. GIS software provides the functions and
tools necessary to store, integrate, analyze, and display geographic
information.
• Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. GIS hardware is
like any other computer hardware with some extra components. Today, GIS
software runs on a wide range of hardware types, especially agro-industry
from centralized computer servers via desktop computers to field
computers used in stand-alone or web clouds networked configurations.
 Examples of Applied GIS
• Urban Planning, Management & Policy • Civil Engineering/Utility
• Zoning, subdivision planning • Locating underground facilities
• Land acquisition • Designing alignment for freeways, transit
• Economic development • Coordination of infrastructure maintenance
• Code enforcement • Business
• Housing renovation programs
• Demographic Analysis
• Emergency response
• Market Penetration/ Share Analysis
• Crime analysis
• Site Selection
• Tax assessment
• Education Administration
• Environmental Sciences • Attendance Area Maintenance
• Monitoring environmental risk
• Enrollment Projections
• Modeling stormwater runoff
• School Bus Routing
• Management of watersheds, floodplains, wetlands, forests,
aquifers • Real Estate
• Environmental Impact Analysis • Neighborhood land prices
• Hazardous or toxic facility siting • Traffic Impact Analysis
• Groundwater modeling and contamination tracking • Determination of Highest and Best Use
• Political Science • Health Care
• Redistricting • Epidemiology
• Analysis of election results • Needs Analysis
• Predictive modeling • Service Inventory
Forestry
• Had been among the first
users of GIS
• In the beginning just
inventory of forest.
• Now GIS is used for all
areas of management.

Source: BUCKLEY, David J. (1997)

Utility Industry
• Companies maintain huge networks of cables, wires, and so forth.
• They need to know „what“ happens „where“.
• GIS registers all those
activities, keeps
records up-to-date, etc.

Source: SOPAC (1998)

State and Local Governments
• Information is generally tied to an address.
• Tasks are development and maintenance of infrastructure .
• Analysis on the effects of land use changes are a common operation.
• Multiusage of information is needed.
Retail Trade
• Retailing is generally restricted to a trade area.
• Possible analysis are:
• comparison of store
performance
• investigation of shopping
patterns
• determination of new locations

Source: ESRI (1998)

Insurance Industry
Applications in the insurance industry are:
• Risk analysis
• estimation of flood damage
• determination of seismic risk
• ...
• Target marketing
• Territory planning
Selftraining
• Visit some of the online GIS tutors and glossaries. What definitions of GIS
do they give and how do they differ?
• Think about how GIS is used or could be used in your own organization or
field of interest. How does it affect the way you work? If you are a student,
how do you use GIS in your studies?
• Use the web to research the problem of nuclear waste disposal. How many
websites can you find that deal with siting issues and mention GIS?
• Imagine you are looking for a new home in your area. Use online estate
agent searches to find your ideal property. What aspects of the search
engines you use are based on GIS principles? Repeat the exercise for an
area you are unfamiliar with, for example in a different country. How does
it help you as someone who is new to the area?
Web links
• GIS.com http://www.gis.com/whatisgis/
• The GIS Lounge http://www.gislounge. com/library/introgis.shtml
• GIS Development online tutorial
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/tutorials/
• Ordnance Survey GIS Files http://www.
ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/gisfiles/
• ESRI GIS Dictionary http://support.esri. com/index.cfm?fa=knowledgebase.
gisDictionary.gateway
• AGI GIS Dictionary http://www.geo.ed.ac. uk/agidict/welcome.html
• University of California Berkeley Dictionary of abbreviations and acronyms
http://www.lib. berkeley.edu/EART/abbrev.html
Remarks: url may changed try to find by keywords in your browser or similar analogous sites
Keywords for exam
• What is GIS? Write your own definition of GIS and consider why GIS
can be difficult to define.
• What type of questions could GIS help environmental managers
address?
• Component of GIS
• GIS main advantages
• GIS as decision supporting
• Applications of GIS
Thank you for your attention!