ECPC22 – Wireless Communication

Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation

• Follows the principle of Electromagnetic wave propagation
– reflection
– diffraction
– scattering
• Problems with urban areas
– No direct line-of-sight
– high-rise buildings causes severe diffraction loss
– multipath fading due to different paths of varying lengths
• Large-scale propagation models predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
Tx-Rx separation distance. (generally for a larger distance).
• Small-scale (fading) models characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received
signal strength over very short travel distance or short time duration.
Large scale and Small scale fading
 Radio wave propagation
• Line of sight The line-of-sight (LOS) propagation is the wave propagation in which the EM ray follows a straight line
from the transmitter to the receiver. It is shown as a direct ray in the next figure.
• Non-line of sight The non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation mechanism is based on and is the resultant of the
following mechanisms:
• Reflection This occurs when the propagating wave impinges on an object that is larger than its wavelength.
Examples of such objects are the surface of the earth, buildings, and walls.
• Diffraction This occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is obstructed by a surface with
sharp irregular edges, which results in the waves bending around the obstacle. Diffraction is more with low-
frequency (LF) signals than with high-frequency (HF)
• Scattering This occurs when the propagating wave is obstructed by objects that are smaller than its wavelength.
Examples of such objects are lamp posts, foliage, street signs, and particles in the air.
• Refraction Due to variations in the refractive index of the atmospheric layers, the EM wave bends (in the cases other
than satellite communication).
T-R Signal variations
 Propagation Channel Effects
• Attenuation It is the drop in the signal power when it is being transmitted from one point
to another. It is caused by the transmission path length, obstructions in the signal path,
and multipath effect.
• Fading As there are obstacles and reflectors in the wireless propagation channel, the
transmitted signal arrives at the receiver from various directions over multiple paths. Such
a phenomenon is called multipath. Fading is the result of multipath in which the signal
strength varies continuously with respect to distance and with time from the transmitter to
the receiver along with the attenuation
• Shadowing This occurs whenever there is an obstruction between the transmitter and the
receiver, and it can be observed in long-distance as well as short distance communication.
It is generally caused by buildings and hills.
 Free Space Propagation Model

 The free space propagation model is used to predict received

signal strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear
line-of-sight path between them.
o satellite communication
o microwave line-of-sight radio link
 Friis free space equation
Pt : transmitted power d : T-R separation distance (m)
Pr (d ) : received power L : system loss factor
Gt : transmitter antenna gain  : wave length in meters
Gr : receiver antenna gain
Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr ( d ) 
( 4 ) 2 d 2 L
 The gain of the antenna
4Ae
G
2

Ae: effective aperture is related to the physical size of the antenna

 The wave length  is related to the carrier frequency by
c 2c
 
f c
: carrier frequency in Hertz
f
c: carrier frequency in radians
c : speed of light (meters/s)
 The losses L ( L 1) are usually due to transmission line
attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the
communication system. A value of L=1 indicates no loss in
the system hardware.
 Isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit
gain.
 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as
EIRP  Pt Gt
and represents the maximum radiated power available from transmitter in the direction of
maximum antenna gain as compared to an isotropic radiator.
 Path loss for the free space model with antenna gains
Pt  Gt Gr 2 
PL ( dB ) 10 log  10 log 2

2 
Pr  ( 4 ) d 
 When antenna gains are excluded
Pt  2 
PL ( dB ) 10 log  10 log 2 2

Pr  ( 4 ) d 
 The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr , for values of d
which is in the far-field (Fraunhofer region) of the transmission
antenna.
 The far-field region of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the far-field
distance 2
2D
df 


where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

 To be in the far-field region the following equations must be satisfied
d f  D d f  
 Furthermore the following equation does not hold for d=0.
Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr ( d ) 
( 4 ) 2 d 2 L
 Use close-in distance d 0 and a known received power Pr ( d 0 ) at that point
2
d  d d 0 d f
Pr ( d )  Pr ( d 0 ) 0 
or  d 

 Pr ( d 0 )  d  d d 0 d f
Pr ( d ) dBm 10 log   20 log 0 
 0.001 W   d 
 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

Basic propagation mechanisms

reflection

diffraction

scattering

Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges
upon an object which has very large dimensions when compared to
the wavelength, e.g., buildings, walls.

Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and
receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp edges.

Waves bend around the obstacle, when LOS (line of sight) does not
exist

Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels
consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the
wavelength.
 Reflection from dielectrics:

E-field normal to the plane of incidence E-field in the plane of incidence

 Reflection from perfect Conductors:

 E-field in the plane of incidence
θi = θ r and Ei = Er
 E-field normal to the plane of incidence
θi = θ r and Ei = -Er
Classical 2-ray Ground Bounce Model

Two-ray ground reflection model

(Wireless Communications by Theodore Rappaport)

 Classical 2-ray Ground Bounce Model
• ETOT is the electric field that results from a combination of a direct line-of-sight path and a ground
reflected path

• is the amplitude of the electric field at distance d

• ωc = 2πfc where fc is the carrier frequency of the signal
• Notice at different distances d the wave is at a different phase because of the form similar to
 Classical 2-ray Ground Bounce Model
• For the direct path let d = d’ ; for the reflected path
d = d” then

• for large T−R separation : θi goes to 0 (angle of incidence to the

ground of the reflected wave) and Γ = −1 (perfect horizontal E field
polarization and ground wave reflection)
• Phase difference can occur depending on the phase
difference between direct and reflected E fields
• The phase difference is θ∆ due to Path difference , ∆ = d”− d’,
between
 Method of Images

The method of images is used to find the path difference between the LOS and the ground
reflected paths
(Wireless Communications by Theodore Rappaport)
• ∆ can be expanded using a Taylor series
expansion
• which works well for d >> (ht + hr), which means
and are small
• the phase difference between the two arriving signals is

E0 d 0  
ETOT (t ) 2 sin   
d  2 
 2 hr ht
  0.3 rad
2 d
E d 2 hr ht k
ETOT (t ) 2 0 0  2 V/m
d d d
• note that the magnitude is with respect to a
reference of E0=1 at d0=100 meters, so near 100
meters the signal can be stronger than E0=1
– the second ray adds in energy that would have been
lost otherwise
• for large distances it can be shown that
 Diffraction
• Each point of a wavefront is the source of a spherical wave.
• For a homogeneous plane wave, the superposition of these spherical waves results in
another homogeneous plane wave.
• The screen eliminates parts of the point sources.
• The resulting wavefront is not plane anymore.
• The E field at the right of the screen (x > 0) is

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Diffraction


The received power at a specific location can actually be increased.

Some spherical waves that would normally interfere destructively in a specific location are blocked off.

Total energy of the wavefront is not increased.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Diffraction
• The Fresnel parameter νF is

• Fresnel zones: helps in assessing the impact of obstacles.

• All rays that are reflected at points on this ellipsoid have the same run length.

Each ellipsoid correspond to a constant phase shift.

The ith Fresnel ellipsoid is the one that results in a phase shift of i π.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Diffraction
Diffraction by Multiple Screens: Bullington’s Method
• Replaces the multiple screens by a single, “equivalent” screen.

Put a tangential straight line from the TX to the real obstacles.

Select the steepest one.

Take the tangents from the RX to the obstacles, select the steepest one.

The equivalent screen is then determined by the intersection of the steepest TX tangent and the
steepest RX tangent

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Diffraction
Diffraction by Multiple Screens: Bullington’s Method

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Scattering
• Received signal often stronger than that predicted by reflection and diffraction models.
• Reflected energy from rough surface is spread out due to scattering.
• Provides additional radio energy at the receiver.

Rayleigh criterion for surface roughness

Surface is rough if h > hc

Surface is smooth if h < hc

Theodore S. Rappaport - Wireless Communications Principles and Practice (2002) Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)
 Scattering
• The reflection coefficient of rough surfaces is given by
• Scattering loss factor accounts for diminished reflected field

- SD of the surface height about the mean surface

height.

Theodore S. Rappaport - Wireless Communications Principles and Practice (2002) Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)
 Fading
• Power fluctuates around a (local) mean value on a very-short-distance scale.
• Reason for these fluctuations is interference between different MPC.
• Field strength described by

(Local) mean value of the power.

Statistics of the fluctuation around them.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Time-Invariant Two-Path Model:
• Transmit signal is a sinusoid.
• Distance b/w Tx and Rx is d. The signal at Rx is
• ko is wavenumber = 2*pi/λ
• Complex baseband of E(t) is
• Two paths have two run times
• r – vector from origin defines the position of Rx.
• k1, k2 – vector values wavenumber

Has absolute value ko in the direction of wave.
• Superposition of two plane waves give

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Time-Invariant Two-Path Model:

Location dependent fading is observed.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Time-Variant Two-Path Model:


Runtime (path length) difference between the different propagation paths changes with time.

Due to movements of the TX, the RX, the IOS, and combinations.

The RX moves through “mountains and valleys” of signal strength.

Spatially varying fading thus becomes time-varying fading.

Fading dips are approximately half a wavelength apart (fc = 900 MHz, it is 16 cm). Small-scale fading.

The RX moves away from the TX with speed v, the distance d between TX and RX increases.


The Doppler shift is given by

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Time-Variant Two-Path Model:

If the direction of Rx movement is not aligned with wave propagation:


The different MPCs have different Doppler shifts.

Superposition of Doppler-shifted waves create the sequence of fading dips.

The two-path model:

Count the number of fading dips per second that an RX sees when moving through the pattern.

Or find the difference of the Doppler shifts of the two waves.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant Component:

Large number of IOs. Moving Rx.

Deterministic description of channel is not efficient. Stochastic description is easier.

Eight electric fields Ei with

Absolute amplitudes |ai|

Angle of incidence (with respect to the x-axis) φi and phase φi.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011) Wireless Communications Andrea Goldsmith, Stanford University
 Fading
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant Component:

Field strength E results from the sum of the complex field strengths of the constituting waves.

Re{E}, in an area of size 5λ · 5λ at t = 0 is shown.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant Component:

Field strength E results from the sum of the complex field strengths of the constituting waves.

Im{E}, in an area of size 5λ · 5λ at t = 0 is shown.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant Component:

Received amplitude |E| along the y axis is shown.

Magnitude Rayleigh distributed, phase uniform distributed.

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant Component: Statistics of amplitude and phase

N multipath components, Tx and IO do not move, Rx moves with velocity v.

Sum of the squared amplitude is, where Cp is constant.

The phases φi are RVs uniformly distributed in the range [0, 2π].

The real and imaginary parts of E are

Considering Doppler, unmodulated carrier is


In terms of in-phase and quadrature phase components, we get

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)

 Fading
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant Component: Statistics of amplitude and phase

I(t) and Q(t) are sum of many random variables.

|ai| << Cp (no dominant component)

Central limit theorem says I(t) and Q(t) are normal distributed, regardless of distributions of ai and φi.

The PDF of I(t) or Q(t) is


PDF of the magnitude and the phase are

Andreas F. Molisch-Wireless Communications (2011)