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Filter Networks and

Operational Amplifier

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Filters
• A filter circuit can be constructed using passive components: resistors and capacitors.
• An active filter additionally uses an amplifier to provide voltage amplification
and signal isolation or buffering.
• In signal processing, a filter is a device or process that removes from a signal some
unwanted component or feature.
• Filtering is a class of signal processing, the defining feature of filters being the complete or partial
suppression of some aspect of the signal. Most often, this means removing some frequencies and not
others in order to suppress interfering signals and reduce background noise.
• It is a network which transmit freely one continuous band of frequency and attenuates all other
frequencies.

Types of Filters

1. Low-pass filter
2. High-pass filter
3. Bandpass filter

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Low-Pass Filter

• It is a filter that transmit all frequencies below Ideal reponse of a

a given cut-off frequency and substantially low-pass filter.
attenuates all other frequencies.
• A filter that provides a constant output from dc
up to a cutoff frequency foh and then passes no
signal above that frequency is called an ideal
low-pass filter.

T-type LPF π-type LPF

R 1 1
L1 = C2 = fC =
πfC πRfC π L1 C2

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• A first-order, low-pass filter using a single resistor and a capacitor has a practical slope
of -20dB/decade.
where
AV --- voltage gain
fOH --- cut-off frequency

First-Order low-pass active filter

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The circuit voltage gain and cutoff frequency are the same
for the second order circuit as for the first-order circuit,
except that the filter response drops at a faster rate for a
second filter circuit.

Second-Order low-pass active filter

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Illustrative Problem 1.

Calculate the cut-off frequency of a first-order low pass filter R1=1.2kΩ and C1=0.02µF.

Solution:

1
f OH =
2πR1C1
1
=
2π(1.2x103 )(0.02x10-6 )
=6.63kHz

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High-Pass Filter
Ideal filter
• It is a filter that transmit all frequencies above response of high-
a given cut-off frequency and substantially pass
attenuates all other frequencies.
• A filter that provides or passes signals above a
cutoff frequency fOL is a high-pass filter.

T-type HPF π-type HPF

1 R 1
C1 = L2 = fC =
4πRfC 4πfC 4π L2 C1

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• For both First- and second-order high-pass active filters,

where
AV --- voltage gain
fOH --- cut-off frequency

For second-order filter: R1=R2 ; C1=C2

High-pass filter
(a) first order
(b) second order
(c) response plot

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Illustrative Problem 2.

Calculate the cutoff frequency of

a second-order high-pass filter
for the circuit.

Solution:

1
f OL =
2πR1C1
1
=
2π(20x103 )(0.02x10-6 )
=397.89Hz
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Bandpass filter

• It is a filter that transmit all frequencies

between a given upper and lower cut-off
values while substantially attenuating all
other frequencies outside this band.
• When the filter circuit passes signals that are
above one ideal cutoff frequency and below
a second cutoff frequency, it is called a
bandpass filter.

T-type BPF π-type BPF

R f2 - f1 R (f2 - f1 ) 1
L1 = C1 = L2 = C2 =
π (f2 - f1 ) 4π R f2 f1 4π f2 f1 πR (f2 - f1 )

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Bandpass filter using two stages, the first a high-pass filter and the second a low-pass filter, the
combined operation being the desired bandpass response.

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Illustrative Problem 3.

Calculate the cutoff frequencies of the bandpass filter circuit in Fig.1.h with R1=R2=10kΩ,
C1=0.1µF and C2=0.002µF.

Solution:

1 1
f OL = f OH =
2πR1C1 2πR 2 C 2
1 1
= =
2π(10x103 )(0.1x10-6 ) 2π(10x103 )(0.002x10-6 )
=159.15Hz =7.96Hz

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Filter Networks and

Operational Amplifier

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Operational Amplifier
Operational Amplifier is a high-gain amplifier with an output that corresponds to the
difference between two input signals. It has a very high input impedance typically a few
megohms) and low output impedance (less than 100Ω).

Basic Op-amp

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What is an Op-Amp? – The Surface

• An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an integrated circuit that uses external voltage to

amplify the input through a very high gain.
• We recognize an Op-Amp as a mass-produced component found in countless electronics.

What an Op-Amp looks like to a

lay-person
What an Op-Amp looks like to an
engineer

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What is an Op-Amp? – The Layout

There are 8 pins in a common Op-Amp, like the 741 which is used in many instructional courses.

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What is an Op-Amp? – The Inside

• The actual count varies, but an Op-Amp contains several Transistors, Resistors, and a few
Capacitors and Diodes.
• For simplicity, an Op-Amp is often depicted as this:
Positive
Power
Supply

Inverting
Input
Output
Non-
Inverting
Input
Negative
Power
Supply

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741 Op-Amp Schematic

current mirror current mirror

differential amplifier current mirror high-gain amplifier

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History of the Op-Amp “The Dawn”

The Vacuum Tube Age

The First Op-Amp: (1930 – 1940) Designed by Karl Swartzel for the Bell Labs M9 gun director
Uses 3 vacuum tubes, only one input, and ± 350 V to attain a gain of 90 dB
Loebe Julie then develops an Op-Amp with two inputs: Inverting and Non-inverting

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History of the Op-Amp “The Shift”

The end of Vacuum Tubes was built up during the 1950’s-1960’s to the advent of solid-state
electronics

1.The Transistor
2.The Integrated Circuit
3.The Planar Process

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1960s: beginning of the Solid State Op-Amp

Example: GAP/R P45 (1961 – 1971)
Runs on ± 15 V, but costs $118 for 1 – 4
The GAP/R PP65 (1962) makes the Op-Amp into a circuit component as a potted module

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History of the Op-Amp – The Evolution

The solid-state decade saw a proliferation of Op-Amps

Model 121, High Speed FET family, etc.
Robert J. Widlar develops the μA702 Monolithic IC Op-Amp (1963) and shortly after the μA709
Fairchild Semiconductor vs. National Semiconductor
National: The LM101 (1967) and then the LM101A (1968) (both by Widlar)
Fairchild: The “famous” μA741 (by Dave Fullager 1968) and then the μA748 (1969)

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Mathematics of the Op-Amp

The gain of the Op-Amp itself is calculated as:

G = Vout/(V+ – V-)

The maximum output is the power supply voltage

When used in a circuit, the gain of the circuit (as opposed to the op-amp component) is:
Av = Vout/Vin

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Ideal Op-Amp Analysis

To analyze an op-amp feedback circuit:

• Assume no current flows into either input terminal
• Assume no current flows out of the output terminal
• Constrain: V+ = V-

AC equivalent of op-amp (a) practical; (b) ideal

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Operation of op-amp as constant gain

multiplier:
a) op-amp ac equivalent circuit;
b) ideal op-amp equivalent circuit ;
c ) redrawn equivalent circuit

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Applications of Op-Amps

Filters
Types:
•Low pass filter
•High pass filter Low pass filter
•Band pass filter C
•Cascading (2 or more filters connected together)

R2

+ Vcc
R1
-
Low pass filter transfer
+
function +
- Vcc
+ V0
- __

Low pass filter Cutoff

frequency 

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Electrocardiogram (EKG) Amplification

Need to measure difference in voltage from lead 1 and lead 2
60 Hz interference from electrical equipment

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Half-Bridge Arrangement Op amp used to amplify output

from strain gauge

R + ΔR Rf

Vref R + Vcc
+ -
- +
+
R - Vcc

V0
R - ΔR
__
Rf

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Piezoelectric Transducer
Used to measure force, pressure, acceleration
Piezoelectric crystal generates an electric charge in response to deformation

Use Charge Amplifier

Just an integrator op-amp circuit

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PID Controller – System Block Diagram.

A PID (Proportional – Integral – Derivative) controller is an instrument used by control
engineers to regulate temperature, flow, pressure, speed, and other process variables in
industrial control systems

VSET VERROR VOUT

Output
I
Process

VSENSOR
Sensor

•Goal is to have VSET = VOUT

•Remember that VERROR = VSET – VSENSOR
•Output Process uses VERROR from the PID controller to adjust Vout such that it is ~VSET
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PI Control

Thermal System we wish to automatically

control the temperature of:

Block Diagram of Control System:

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Thank You for listening!

Let’s have some basic problems showing Op-Amps operational principles…

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