Complex Functions

Outline

• Regions in complex plane

• Complex functions, limits and continuity, derivative
• Analytic function, Cauchy-Riemann equations
• Elementary complex functions
Chapter Objectives
From this chapter, you should learn how to:
❑Sketch circular regions in the complex ❑Determine the harmonic conjugate and hence
plane. the corresponding analytic function.
❑Put a function in the form of 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 and ❑Identify modulus and principal argument of
identify the corresponding 𝑢 and 𝑣. 𝑒 𝑧.
❑Evaluate the value of a function at a ❑Determine 𝑧 given 𝑒 𝑧 .
point.
❑Determine 𝑧 given e.g. cos 𝑧 = 5.
❑Check if the limit doesn't exist.
❑Determine the logarithm of a complex
❑Find the derivative and determine
number.
domains of analyticity.
❑Identify the principal value of a complex
❑Determine if a function is analytic.
logarithm.
❑Determine if a function is a harmonic
function. ❑Determine the power of a complex number.

❑…
Regions of the complex plane
• A circle of radius 𝜌 centred at 𝑎 is the set of points 𝑧 satisfying
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝜌.
• A unit circle centred at 𝑎 is the set of points 𝑧 satisfying 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 1.
• An open circular disk is the interior of a circle i.e. points 𝑧 satisfying
𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌.
• A closed circular disk is the interior plus the boundary of a circle i.e.
points 𝑧 satisfying 𝑧 − 𝑎 ≤ 𝜌.
• A neighbourhood of 𝑎 is an open circular disk centred at 𝑎 i.e all 𝑧
satisfying 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌.
• A deleted neighbourhood of 𝑎 is an open circular disk centred at 𝑎,
but excluding the point 𝑎 itself, i.e. all 𝑧 satisfying 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌.
Regions of the complex plane
Regions of the complex plane

Sketch a circle, an open circular disk and a closed

circular disk for 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖 and 𝜌 = 1.
Regions of the complex plane

• An open annulus 𝜌1 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝜌2 is the set of points

𝑧 whose distance |𝑧 − 𝑎| from 𝑎 is greater than 𝜌1 but
less than 𝜌2 .
• A closed annulus 𝜌1 ≤ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ≤ 𝜌2 includes the two
circles 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝜌1 and 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝜌2 .
• Half-planes
• The (open) upper half-plane is the set of points
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 such that 𝑦 > 0.
• The (open) lower half-plane is the set of points
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 such that 𝑦 < 0.
Regions of the complex plane
Sets in the complex plane

Given a set 𝑆 of points in the complex plane:

• A point 𝑧0 in the plane is an interior point of the set 𝑆 if 𝑧0 has
a neighbourhood consisting entirely of points that belong to 𝑆.
• A point 𝑧0 in the plane is an exterior point of the set 𝑆 if 𝑧0 has
a neighbourhood consisting entirely of points that do not
belong to 𝑆.
• A point 𝑧0 in the plane is a boundary point of the set 𝑆 if every
one of 𝑧0 ’s neighbourhood contains both points that belong to
𝑆 and points that do not belong to 𝑆.
Sets in the complex plane

• A set 𝑆 is open if it contains no boundary point (or equivalently, every

point of 𝑆 is an interior point i.e. every point has a neighbourhood
consisting entirely of points that belong to 𝑆).
• A set 𝑆 is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.
• The boundary of a set 𝑆 is the set of all boundary points.
• A set is connected if any two of its points can be joined by a chain of
finitely many straight-lines segments all of whose belong to 𝑆.
• A domain is an open and connected set.
• A region is a set consisting of a domain plus some or all of its boundary
points
Complex function

• A complex function 𝑓 is a mapping from a complex

number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 to another complex number
𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 i.e

𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)

• Examples:
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧,ҧ 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑖𝑧 + 6𝑧,ҧ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥
Example

Given 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , determine the 𝑢 and 𝑣.

Example

Given 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑖𝑧 + 6𝑧,ҧ determine (1) the 𝑢 and 𝑣

and (2) 𝑓(1 + 𝑖).
Limit and continuity

Loosely, a function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have the limit 𝑙 as 𝑧

approaches 𝑧0 i.e.

lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0

if 𝑓 is defined in a neighbourhood of 𝑧0 (except possibly at the

point 𝑧0 itself) and if the values of 𝑓 are “close” to 𝑙 for all 𝑧
“close” to 𝑧0 .
Important: 𝑧 may approach 𝑧0 from any direction!
Limit and continuity

More precisely, a function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have the limit 𝑙 as 𝑧

approaches 𝑧0 i.e.

lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0

if for every positive real 𝜖, we can find a positive real 𝛿 such

that for all 𝑧 ≠ 𝑧0 in the disk 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿, we have
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑙 < 𝜖.
Important: 𝑧 may approach 𝑧0 from any direction!
Limit and continuity
Example

Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧/𝑧.
ҧ Show that the limit as 𝑧 → 0 doesn’t
exist.
Limit and continuity

A function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if 𝑓 𝑧0 is

defined and

lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑧0
𝑧→𝑧0

A function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a domain if it is

continuous at each point of the domain.
Derivative

The derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 is given by

′
𝑓 𝑧0 + Δ𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0
𝑓 𝑧0 = lim
Δ𝑧→0 Δ𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧0
= lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0

provided the limit exists. Then, 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .

Important: 𝑧 may approach 𝑧0 from any direction!

Derivative

For any differentiable functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, and constant 𝑐,

we have all the differentiation rules as in real calculus e.g.

′
• 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓 ′ 𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔
• 𝑓 𝑔 𝑧 =
′ 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑧
• 𝑓+𝑔 = 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′
′ • 𝑧𝑛 ′
= 𝑛𝑧 𝑛−1
• 𝑓𝑔 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 + 𝑓𝑔′

𝑓 ′ 𝑓′ 𝑔−𝑓𝑔′
• =
𝑔 𝑔2
Example

Find the derivative of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 .

Example

Find the derivative of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧.ҧ

Example
Analytic functions

• An analytic function is a function that is analytic in

some domain.
• An entire function is a function that is analytic for all 𝑧.
Example

Determine the domain of analyticity of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 .

Example

Determine the domain of analyticity of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧.ҧ

Cauchy-Riemann equations

• If a complex function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is

analytic, then the first partial derivatives of 𝑢 and 𝑣
satisfy the two Cauchy-Riemann equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
i.e. these are necessary condition
• If the partial derivatives are continuous, they are
sufficient condition for 𝑓 𝑧 to be analytic.
Cauchy-Riemann equations
Cauchy-Riemann equations
Example

Is 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ analytic?
Example

Is 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦) analytic?

Example
Polar form Cauchy-Riemann equations

If we use the polar form 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 and

let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃), then the Cauchy-
Riemann equations read

𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= , =− .
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Harmonic functions
Harmonic functions

• Solutions of Laplace’s equation having continuous

second-order partial derivatives are called
harmonic functions.
• Hence, 𝑢 and 𝑣 of an analytic function are
harmonic functions.
• 𝑣 is also called the harmonic conjugate of 𝑢.
• Given one, the other can be determined up to an
additive constant.
Announcement

Telegram group:
https://tinyurl.com/ZCT2102425telegram
Lecture next Wednesday: Hybrid
Announcement
Example

Verify that 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 is harmonic in the whole

complex plane, find a corresponding harmonic conjugate
and hence a corresponding analytic function.
Example
Example
Exponential function

• Definition:
𝑒 𝑧 ≔ 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
• Properties:
• 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 for real 𝑧 = 𝑥
• 𝑒 𝑧 is analytic for all 𝑧
• The derivative of 𝑒 𝑧 is 𝑒 𝑧 i.e.
𝑑 𝑧
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑧
𝑑𝑧
Exponential function – alternative definitions

The exponential function could also be defined using

series as
∞
𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
𝑒𝑧 ≔ ෍ =1+𝑧+ + +⋯
𝑘! 2! 3!
𝑘=0

or using limit as
𝑧 𝑛
𝑧
𝑒 ≔ lim 1 +
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
Exponential function – further properties

• For any 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ,

𝑒 𝑧1 +𝑧2 = 𝑒 𝑧1 𝑒 𝑧2

• In particular,
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
• So that when 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦, we have the Euler formula

𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦
Exponential function – further properties

• Some important values are

𝑒 0 = 1, 𝑒 𝜋𝑖/2 = 𝑖, 𝑒 𝜋𝑖 = −1
𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 = 1, 𝑒 −𝜋𝑖/2 = −𝑖, 𝑒 −𝜋𝑖 = −1
• Note that
𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦
= cos 2 𝑦 + sin2 𝑦
=1
• Also, arg 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑦 + 2𝑘𝜋.
Exponential function – periodicity

• Note that
𝑒 𝑧+2𝜋𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑧
for all 𝑧.
• Therefore, all values of 𝑒 𝑧 are already assumed in
the horizontal strip of width 2𝜋 i.e.
−𝜋 < 𝑦 ≤ π
• This infinite strip is called the fundamental region
of 𝑒 𝑧 .
Exponential function – periodicity
Exponential function – example

Determine the absolute value and principal

argument of 𝑒 1.4−0.6𝑖 .
Exponential function – example

Solve for 𝑧 given that 𝑒 𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖.

Trigonometric Functions

• Definition:
1 𝑖𝑧
cos 𝑧 ≔ 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
2
1 𝑖𝑧
sin 𝑧 ≔ 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
2𝑖
• Other trigonometric functions are defined analogously to the real
versions:
sin 𝑧 cos 𝑧
tan 𝑧 = , cot 𝑧 =
cos 𝑧 sin 𝑧
1 1
sec 𝑧 = , csc 𝑧 =
cos 𝑧 sin 𝑧
Trigonometric Functions

• Derivatives are analogous to real versions i.e.

𝑑
cos 𝑧 = − sin 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑑
sin 𝑧 = cos 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑑
tan 𝑧 = sec 2 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
• Euler’s formula is valid for complex argument i.e.
𝑒 𝑖𝑧 = cos 𝑧 + 𝑖 sin 𝑧
Trigonometric Functions

• From the definition, we have

cos 𝑧 = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
sin 𝑧 = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
and hence
cos 𝑧 2 = cos 2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑦
sin 𝑧 2 = sin2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑦
• Properties:
• Periodic in 𝑥 with period 2𝜋.
• Unbounded in magnitude: absolute value → ∞ as 𝑦 → ∞.
Trigonometric Functions

Solve cos 𝑧 = 5, cos 𝑧 = 0 and sin 𝑧 = 0.

Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Functions

• Many trigonometric identities holds for complex

values e.g.

cos(𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 ) = cos 𝑧1 cos 𝑧2 ∓ sin 𝑧1 sin 𝑧2

sin(𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 ) = sin 𝑧1 cos 𝑧2 ± sin 𝑧1 cos 𝑧2

cos2 𝑧 + sin2 𝑧 = 1
Hyperbolic Functions

• Definition:
1 𝑧
cosh 𝑧 ≔ 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑧
2
1 𝑧
sinh 𝑧 ≔ 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑧
2
• Other hyperbolic functions are defined analogously:
sinh 𝑧 cosh 𝑧
tanh 𝑧 = , coth 𝑧 =
cosh 𝑧 sinh 𝑧
1 1
sech 𝑧 = , csch 𝑧 =
cosh 𝑧 sinh 𝑧
Hyperbolic Functions

• Derivatives:
𝑑
cosh 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑑
sinh 𝑧 = cosh 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
• Relation to complex trigonometric functions:
cosh 𝑖𝑧 = cos 𝑧 , sinh 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑖 sin 𝑧
cos 𝑖𝑧 = cosh 𝑧 , sin 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑖 sinh 𝑧
Logarithm

• Definition:
The natural logarithm of 𝑧, denoted ln 𝑧, is the
inverse of the exponential function. So, 𝑤 = ln 𝑧 is
a complex number such that 𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑧.
• This leads to
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
where 𝑟 = 𝑧 > 0, 𝜃 = arg 𝑧, ln 𝑟 is ordinary
logarithm and 𝑘 is an integer.
Logarithm – The Principal Value

• Problem:
Ambiguity in the imaginary part; ln 𝑧 is infinitely
multivalued due to arbitrariness of 𝑘 and 𝜃 = arg 𝑧
being determined only up to integer multiples of 2𝜋.
• Solution:
Define the principle value of ln 𝑧, denoted Ln 𝑧, by
restricting the range of the imaginary part to be in
(−𝜋, 𝜋], so that
Ln 𝑧 = ln |𝑧| + 𝑖 Arg 𝑧
Logarithm – The Principal Value

Properties of Ln 𝑧:
• When 𝑧 = 𝑥 > 0, then Ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑥 i.e. Ln 𝑧 is the
ordinary real natural logarithm.
• When 𝑧 = 𝑥 < 0, then
Ln 𝑧 = ln |𝑧| + 𝜋𝑖
• Derivative:
𝑑 1
Ln 𝑧 =
𝑑𝑧 𝑧
where 𝑧 is not 0 or negative real.
Logarithm – branch cuts

• We can write
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 Arg 𝑧 + 2𝑛𝜋
• Each of the infinitely many functions (indexed by 𝑛
here) is called a branch of the logarithm.
• The branch 𝑛 = 0 is called the principal branch of
ln 𝑧.
• There is a discontinuity in Ln 𝑧 along the negative
real axis, which is called as the branch cut.
Logarithm – branch cuts

Image: Wikipedia - Riemann surface

Logarithm – branch cuts
Logarithm – miscellaneous

• For any 𝑧 ≠ 0,
𝑒 ln 𝑧 = 𝑧
• However, ln 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑧 does not hold; we have
ln 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑧 + 2𝑘𝜋𝑖, for 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
• In fact, even Ln 𝑒 𝑧 = z may not hold
• 𝑧 may have 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, ∞)
• But Arg 𝑒 𝑧 ∈ (−𝜋, 𝜋].
Example

Given 𝑧 = 1 + i. Determine possible values of ln 𝑧

and the principal value.
General Power

• Definition:
For any complex 𝑧 ≠ 0 and complex 𝑐,
𝑧 𝑐 = 𝑒 𝑐 ln 𝑧
• In general, 𝑧 𝑐 will be multivalued.
• The principle value:
For any complex 𝑧 ≠ 0 and complex 𝑐,
𝑧 𝑐 = 𝑒 𝑐 Ln 𝑧
General Power

• If 𝑐 = 𝑛 = 1,2, …, then 𝑧 𝑛 is single-valued and identical

to the 𝑛the power of 𝑧.
• Similar situation if 𝑐 = −1, −2, … i.e. single-valued.
• If 𝑐 = 1/𝑛, where 𝑛 = 2,3, …, then 𝑧 𝑐 = 𝑛 𝑧 has
finitely many distinct values.
• Similar situation if 𝑐 = 𝑝/𝑞, where 𝑝, 𝑞 are positive
integers.
• If 𝑐 is irrational or complex, then 𝑧 𝑐 is infinitely many-
valued.
Example

Evaluate 1 + 𝑖 𝑖 .
Announcement

• Assignment 1 will be given next Monday