ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 1

4 Roots of Non-Linear Equations

OVERVIEW
A large number of engineering and scientific problems can be formulated in terms of finding
the value, or values, of some variable x which results in a zero value of some function of that
variable. Equations that can be cast in the form of a polynomial are referred to as algebraic
equations. Equations involving more complicated terms, such as trigonometric, hyperbolic,
exponential, or logarithmic functions are referred to as transcendental equations. The methods
presented in this section are numerical methods that can be applied to the solution of such
equations, to which we will refer, in general, as non-linear equations. In general, we will be
searching for one, or more, solutions to the equation, f(x) = 0. You will study in this module the
different methods in determining the roots of the given equations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Determine roots of the given equation.
2. Solve the approximate roots using the methods that will be discuss in this module.
3. Discuss exercises using the steps in solving the roots of the equation.

KEY TERMS
Bisection Method
Incremental Search Method
Iterations
Newton-Raphson Method
Regula Falsi Method
Secant Method

4.1. Incremental Search Method

The incremental search method is a numerical method that is used when is needed to find
an interval of two values of ‘x’ that is meant to contain at least one root

The incremental search method starts with an initial value X0, a final value X1 (Lower and
upper limits of the interval, respectively) and a constant called Delta. This constant is going to be
added to the lower limit of the interval in each iteration in order to go from X0 to X1.

We can find the value of x1 easily with this equation:

𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 + ∆𝒙
If we convert that equation into an iterative one we got:
𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙
With the expression mentioned above, we have already a series of values of ‘x’ that we
can evaluate on the function.

Now, how do we know where is the root and in which interval is it?

The solution is to evaluate a pair of continue values of ‘x’ we obtained previously on the
function, multiply the images generated and see which sign we obtain:

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 2

➢ If f(xn-1)* f(xn) is greater than 0, then there is no root between these two values of x.
➢ If (xn-1)* f(xn) < 0, we can assure that a root exists between the interval [xn-1,xn].

“Incremental search” is not a numeric method, but a support that help to determine an
approximation of some initial values that are going to be used to calculate roots. Incremental
search is a search technique for continual planning (or, synonymously, replanning, plan reuse, and
lifelong planning) that reuses information from previous searches to find solutions to a series of
similar search problems potentially faster than is possible by solving each search problem from
scratch.

EXAMPLE 1: Find the approximate value of the positive root of x2 – x – 1 = 0.

Solution:
Let x0 = 1.5, Δx =0.01

First iteration:
1.52 – 1.5 – 1 = - 0.25
nd
2 iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.5 + 0.01 = 1.51
1.512 – 1.51 – 1 = - 0.2299
rd
3 iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.51 + 0.01 = 1.52
1.522 – 1.52 – 1 = - 0.2096
Note:
As the x is increasing the value of f(x) is approaching closer to zero. So, we are on the right
track in obtaining the root of the equation.

4th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.52 + 0.01 = 1.53
1.532 – 1.53 – 1 = - 0.1891
5th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.53 + 0.01 = 1.54
1.542 – 1.54 – 1 = - 0.1684
6th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.54 + 0.01 = 1.55
1.552 – 1.55 – 1 = - 0.1475
7th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.55 + 0.01 = 1.56
1.562 – 1.56 – 1 = - 0.1264
8th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.56 + 0.01 = 1.57
1.572 – 1.57 – 1 = - 0.1051
9th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.57 + 0.01 = 1.58
1.582 – 1.58 – 1 = - 0.0836
10th iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.58 + 0.01 = 1.59
Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME
Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 3

1.592 – 1.59 – 1 = - 0.0619

th
11 iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.59 + 0.01 = 1.60
1.602 – 1.60 – 1 = -0.04
th
12 iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.60 + 0.01 = 1.61
1.612 – 1.61 – 1 = -0.0179
th
13 iteration:
Where 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒙 = 1.61 + 0.01 = 1.62
1.622 – 1.62 – 1 = 0.0044

The sign of f(x) changes from negative to positive at 12th and 13th iteration. Therefore the positive
root is between 1.61 and 1.62.

4.2. Bisection Method

The bisection method is a root-finding method that applies to any continuous functions for
which one knows two values with opposite signs.
The bisection method is used to find the roots of a polynomial equation. It separates the
interval and subdivides the interval in which the root of the equation lies. The principle behind this
method is the intermediate theorem for continuous functions. It works by narrowing the gap
between the positive and negative intervals until it closes in on the correct answer. This method
narrows the gap by taking the average of the positive and negative intervals. It is a simple method
and it is relatively slow. The bisection method is also known as interval halving method, root-finding
method, binary search method or dichotomy method.
Let us consider a continuous function “f” which is defined on the closed interval [a, b], is
given with f(a) and f(b) of different signs. Then by intermediate theorem, there exists a point x
belong to (a, b) for which f(x) =0.

Follow the below procedure to get the solution for the continuous function:
For any continuous function f(x),
• Find two points, say a and b such that a < b and f(a)* f(b) < 0
• Find the midpoint of a and b, say “t”
• t is the root of the given function if f(t) = 0; else follow the next step
• Divide the interval [a, b]
• If f(t)*f(b) <0, let a = t
• Else if f(t) *f(a), let b = t
• Repeat above three steps until f(t) = 0.

The bisection method is an approximation method to find the roots of the given equation by
repeatedly dividing the interval. This method will divide the interval until the resulting interval is
found, which is extremely small.

EXAMPLE 2: Determine the root of the given equation x2 – 3 = 0 for x ∈ [1, 2]

Solution:
Given: x2 – 3 = 0

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 4

Let f(x) = x2-3

Now, find the value of f(x) at a= 1 and b=2.

f(x=1) = 12 - 3 = 1 – 3 = -2 < 0

f(x=2) = 22-3 = 4 – 3 = 1 > 0

The given function is continuous, and the root lies in the interval [1, 2].

Let “t” be the midpoint of the interval.

I.e., t = (1+2)/2

t =3 / 2

t = 1.5
Therefore, the value of the function at “t” is

f(t) =f(1.5) = (1.5)2-3 = 2.25 – 3 = -0.75 < 0

f(t) is negative, so b is replaced with t= 1.5 for the next iterations.

The iterations for the given functions are:

4.3. Regula Falsi and Secant Methods

Regula Falsi method or the method of false position is a numerical method for solving an
equation in one unknown. It is quite similar to bisection method algorithm and is one of the oldest
approaches. It was developed because the bisection method converges at a fairly slow speed. In
simple terms, the method is the trial and error technique of using test ("false") values for the
variable and then adjusting the test value according to the outcome.

Limitations
While Regula Falsi Method like Bisection Method is always convergent, meaning that it is
always leading towards a definite limit and relatively simple to understand but there are also some
drawbacks when this algorithm is used. As both regula falsi and bisection method are similar there
are some common limitations both the algorithms have.
➢ Rate of convergence

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 5

The convergence of the regula falsi method can be very slow in some cases (May converge
slowly for functions with big curvatures) as explained above.
➢ Relies on sign changes
If a function f (x) is such that it just touches the x -axis for example say f(x) = x2 then it will not
be able to find lower guess (a) such that f(a)*f(b) < 0

➢ Cannot detect Multiple Roots

Like Bisection method, Regula Falsi Method fails to identify multiple different roots, which
makes it less desirable to use compared to other methods that can identify multiple roots.

STEPS IN SOLVING ROOTS USING REGULA FALSI METHOD

EXAMPLE 3: Find a root of an equation f(x) = x3 – x – 1 using False Position method

Solution:
The equation is x3 – x – 1 = 0

Let f(x) = x3 – x – 1
Determine 2 values of x where the root is in between the two values.
x 0 1 2
f(x) -1 -1 5

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 6

f(1) = -1 < 0 and f(2) = 5 >0

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 7

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 8

At 10th iteration, the approximate root of the equation x3-x-1=0 using False Position method is
1.32464

4.4. Newton-Raphson Method

Is a well-known numerical method to find (approximate) zeros (or “roots”) of a
function. It is an iterative algorithm, which, when successful, converges (usually) rapidly
(quadratically, i.e., doubling the number of correct figures in each iteration), but may fail
as any other root-finding algorithm.

The method tries to solve an equation in the form of Eq. {1}

𝑓(𝑥) = 0 {1}

through the iterative procedure of Eq. {2}

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥∗ = 𝑥 − {2}
𝑓′(𝑥)

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 9

Initial guess- initial estimate of x,

The notation x* is often used to indicate the solution to a problem (Eq. {1})
in this method, here it is used to mean the next, (hopefully) improved value of the
variable, which, in the end, will indeed be the solution.

Eq. {2} shows that: if we know the solution, i.e., the x for which it is f(x) = 0, then, of
course, the next x is the same as the current one, so the process is terminated and
if the derivative is null in the solution, i.e., f’(x) = 0, the method fails

Example 4

Solve

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 {3}

from x = 1

Resolution Applying the algorithm, it is

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎 {4}

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑥∗ = 𝑥 − =𝑥−𝑥− =− {5}
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Example 5

Solve

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 0 {6}

from x = ±5

Resolution Applying the algorithm, with the simple derivative, it is

2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
𝑥∗ = 𝑥 − {7}
4𝑥 − 6

Eq. {7} could be simplified to

𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
𝑥∗ = 𝑥 − {8}
2𝑥 − 3

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 10

Eq. {7} could be simplified (to equation 8) but not necessary—, just to show that 0 and 3
are, the roots of the given equation. The function is shown in Fig. 1 and the computations
in Table 1.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following questions. Write your answer in your notebook. Please
observe cleanliness to your work.
1) Using Incremental Search. Determine the values ox from x1, to x6

a) 1.5𝑥 − 6𝑥 −1
1
𝑓(𝑥) = − 0.65 tan ( )
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 𝑥
b)
1.5𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = + √𝑥
3
𝑥
4

2) Consider finding the root of f(x) = x^2-3. Let εstep = 0.01, εabs = 0.01 and start with the
interval [1, 2]. Use a table Bisection method applied to f(x) = x2 - 3.

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio
 ES 221e – Numerical Solution to CE Problem 11

3) Locate the intervals which contain the positive real roots of the equation x3 − 3x + 1 =
0. Obtain these roots correct to three decimal places, using the method of false
position.
4.) Use Newton’s Method to find the only real root of the equation x3−x−1 = 0 correct to 9
decimal places

SUGGESTED READINGS

Numerical Methods. Retrieved from

https://atozmath.com/example/CONM/Bisection.aspx?he=e&q=fp

Regula Falsi Method. Retrieved from https://iq.opengenus.org/regula-falsi-method/

REFERENCES

Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide for Numerical Analysis, 9th Edition
Richard L. Burden, Cengage Learning, 2011

Numerical Mathematics and Computing, 7th Edition

Ward Cheney, Cengage Learning, 2013

Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations, 3rd Edition

Granville Sewell, Wspc, 2014

Differential Equations, 4th Edition

Paul Blanchard, Robert L. Devaney, Glen R. Hall, Cengage Learning, 2011

Engr. Michael John T. Guillermo, RME

Subject Teacher/ Special Lecturer This Review Guide is a product of
research made by Engr. Ariel E. Novio