Allama Iqbal Open University

Bs English 2.5 years literature and linguistics

Assignment no#1

Subject code: 9066

Student's ID0000740795

Answer no#1
Descriptive and Prescriptive Approaches to Grammar

Grammar is the study of language structure, and there are two main approaches to analyzing it:
descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar. These approaches differ in their objectives,
characteristics, and historical origins.

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1. Descriptive Grammar

Definition

Descriptive grammar focuses on how language is actually used by speakers in real life. It does
not judge what is "correct" or "incorrect"; instead, it observes and records patterns of speech
and writing as they naturally occur.

Origins

Rooted in linguistic studies from the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly influenced by
structural linguists like Ferdinand de Saussure and later scholars such as Noam Chomsky (with
his theories on syntax and generative grammar).

Modern linguists like Leonard Bloomfield also emphasized the importance of studying language
as it is spoken, rather than imposing rigid rules.

Characteristics

1. Observational – It describes how people use language in everyday contexts.

2. Neutral – It does not impose rules but instead recognizes variation and change in language.

3. Dynamic – Accepts that language evolves over time and adapts to new trends.

4. Example-based – Studies actual speech and writing rather than relying on fixed rules.

Examples

In English, people often say “Who did you see?” instead of “Whom did you see?”
A descriptive grammarian would note that "whom" is disappearing in casual speech and writing.

Many speakers say "gonna" instead of "going to" in spoken English.

A descriptive approach acknowledges this as a natural linguistic development.

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2. Prescriptive Grammar

Definition

Prescriptive grammar focuses on establishing strict rules for how language should be used. It
dictates what is considered "correct" and "incorrect" based on traditional norms.

Origins

Developed in the 17th and 18th centuries by grammarians like Robert Lowth and Lindley Murray,
who wrote early English grammar books to standardize language usage.

Based on the belief that language should follow fixed rules to maintain clarity and consistency.
Characteristics

1. Rule-based – It establishes formal grammatical rules.

2. Judgmental – It classifies language use as "correct" or "incorrect."

3. Static – It resists changes in language, preferring traditional structures.

4. Focuses on Written Language – Often prioritizes standard grammar over spoken variations.

Examples

“Whom did you see?” is considered correct, while “Who did you see?” is incorrect.

“Never end a sentence with a preposition” (e.g., "Where are you at?" is seen as incorrect).

“Ain’t” is not a word. (Even though it is widely used in informal English).

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Which Approach Do I Prefer?

I prefer descriptive grammar because:

1. It reflects real-life language use – People naturally adapt their speech, and descriptive
grammar embraces this flexibility.

2. It recognizes language change – English has evolved over time, and what was once incorrect
can become standard (e.g., "they" as a singular pronoun).

3. It is more inclusive – Prescriptive rules can exclude certain dialects or informal speech, while
descriptive grammar acknowledges linguistic diversity.

However, prescriptive grammar is still useful in formal writing, academic settings, and
professional communication, where standardization is necessary. A balance between both
approaches is often the best way to understand and use language effectively.

Answer no#2
Difference Between Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives and adverbs share some similarities, as both describe or modify other words, but
they function differently in sentences. Below is a detailed explanation of their distinctions,
supported by examples.

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1. Definition and Function

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns by providing more information
about them.

They answer questions like "What kind?" "Which one?" "How many?"

Examples:

"The tall man is standing near the door." (Describes man)

"She bought a red dress." (Red describes dress, telling us its color.)

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs by providing
details about manner, degree, frequency, time, or place.

They answer questions like "How?" "When?" "Where?" "To what extent?"

Examples:

"She runs quickly." (Quickly describes runs, telling us how she runs.)

"He arrived late." (Late modifies arrived, indicating time.)

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2. Key Differences

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3. Examples in Sentences

Adjective Examples:

1. "The intelligent student won the competition." (Intelligent modifies student.)

2. "She has a beautiful voice." (Beautiful modifies voice.)

3. "Those apples are fresh." (Fresh modifies apples.)

Adverb Examples:

1. "She sings beautifully." (Beautifully modifies sings—describes how she sings.)

2. "He always arrives on time." (Always modifies arrives—describes frequency.)

3. "They spoke quite loudly." (Quite modifies loudly—intensifies the adverb loudly.)

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4. Overlapping Cases
Some words can function as both adjectives and adverbs, depending on how they are used in a
sentence.

Examples:

1. Fast

Adjective: "He drives a fast car." (Fast describes car, a noun.)

Adverb: "He drives fast." (Fast describes drives, a verb.)

2. Hard

Adjective: "That is a hard question." (Hard describes question.)

Adverb: "He works hard." (Hard describes works.)

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Conclusion

While adjectives and adverbs share similarities, their fundamental difference lies in what they
modify:

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Answer no#3
Phrase Structure Rules and the Projection of Heads

Phrase structure rules describe how words combine to form phrases in a hierarchical manner.
The fundamental principle behind phrase structure is that every phrase is a projection of its
head, meaning that within any phrase, there is a central word (head) that determines the
phrase’s grammatical category and function.

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1. Understanding Phrase Structure Rules

Phrase structure rules define the composition of different types of phrases by specifying the
head of the phrase and any optional modifiers, complements, or specifiers that may accompany
it. The basic structure of a phrase is:

\text{Phrase} → \text{(Specifier)} + \text{Head} + \text{(Complement/Modifier)}

Head: The main word that determines the type of phrase.

Specifier: Optional elements like determiners, possessives, or quantifiers.

Complement: Words or phrases that complete the meaning of the head.

Modifier: Words that provide additional information about the head.

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2. Formation of Different Phrases

a) Noun Phrase (NP)

A Noun Phrase is headed by a noun, which may be accompanied by a determiner, adjective(s),

or a complement.

Structure:

NP → (Determiner) + Noun + (Adjective/Prepositional Phrase)

Examples:

1. "The beautiful garden"

Head: garden (noun)

Specifier: The (determiner)

Modifier: beautiful (adjective)

2. "A student of physics"

Head: student

Specifier: A

Complement: of physics (prepositional phrase)

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b) Verb Phrase (VP)

A Verb Phrase is headed by a verb, often followed by an object, adverb, or prepositional phrase.
Structure:

VP → Verb + (Object) + (Adverb/Prepositional Phrase)

Examples:

1. "She wrote a letter."

Head: wrote (verb)

Object: a letter (noun phrase)

2. "He speaks fluently."

Head: speaks (verb)

Modifier: fluently (adverb)

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c) Adjective Phrase (AdjP)

An Adjective Phrase is headed by an adjective, sometimes with modifiers.

Structure:

AdjP → (Adverb) + Adjective + (Complement)

Examples:

1. "Very happy"

Head: happy (adjective)

Modifier: very (adverb)

2. "Fond of music"

Head: fond

Complement: of music (prepositional phrase)

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d) Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

An Adverb Phrase is headed by an adverb, which may be modified by another adverb.

Structure:

AdvP → (Adverb) + Adverb

Examples:

1. "Quite slowly"

Head: slowly (adverb)

Modifier: quite (adverb)

2. "Very carefully"

Head: carefully

Modifier: very

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e) Prepositional Phrase (PP)

A Prepositional Phrase consists of a preposition followed by a noun phrase.

Structure:

PP → Preposition + Noun Phrase

Examples:

1. "On the table"

Head: on (preposition)
Complement: the table (noun phrase)

2. "In the morning"

Head: in

Complement: the morning

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3. Importance of Phrase Structure Rules

Explains Sentence Formation: Helps in understanding how words are arranged to form
meaningful structures.

Guides Syntax and Parsing: Essential for grammatical analysis and computational linguistics.

Shows Hierarchical Structure: Reveals how words combine into larger units in language.
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Conclusion

Phrase structure rules show that every phrase is a projection of its head, which determines its
category and meaning. Understanding these rules helps in analyzing sentence structure,
grammar, and language patterns effectively.

Answer no#4
Structure of Subordinate Clauses: Complement Clause & Relative Clause

A subordinate clause (also called a dependent clause) is a clause that cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence because it depends on a main clause for meaning. There are different types
of subordinate clauses, including complement clauses and relative clauses, each with distinct
functions and structures.

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1. Complement Clause

Definition

A complement clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a complement to a verb, noun,

or adjective in the main clause. It completes the meaning of the main clause.
Structure

\text{Main Clause} + \text{Complementizer (if needed)} + \text{Subordinate Clause}

Complement clauses are often introduced by the complementizers "that," "whether," or "if".

In some cases, the complementizer "that" can be omitted in informal speech.

Types of Complement Clauses

a) Verb Complement Clause

A complement clause that functions as the object of a verb.

Examples:

1. "She said (that) she was coming."

Main Clause: She said

Complement Clause: (that) she was coming

2. "I wonder whether he will attend."

Main Clause: I wonder

Complement Clause: whether he will attend

b) Noun Complement Clause

A complement clause that modifies a noun.

Examples:

1. "The fact that he lied disappointed me."

Main Clause: The fact disappointed me

Complement Clause: that he lied (modifies "fact")

c) Adjective Complement Clause

A complement clause that completes the meaning of an adjective.

Examples:

1. "I am happy that you came."

Main Clause: I am happy

Complement Clause: that you came (completes the adjective "happy")

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2. Relative Clause

Definition

A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun in the main clause. It provides
additional information about the noun.
Structure

\text{Main Clause} + \text{Relative Pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that)} +

\text{Subordinate Clause}

Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns like who, whom, whose, which, that (for
people and things) or where, when, why (for places, times, and reasons).

The relative pronoun links the subordinate clause to the noun it modifies.

Types of Relative Clauses

a) Restrictive (Defining) Relative Clause

Essential to the meaning of the sentence.

No commas are used.

Examples:

1. "The book that I borrowed is interesting."

Main Clause: The book is interesting

Relative Clause: that I borrowed (modifies "book")

2. "Students who study hard succeed."

Main Clause: Students succeed

Relative Clause: who study hard (modifies "students")

b) Non-Restrictive (Non-Defining) Relative Clause

Provides extra, non-essential information.

Commas are used.

Examples:

1. "My brother, who lives in London, is visiting us."

Main Clause: My brother is visiting us

Relative Clause: who lives in London (extra information)

2. "The Eiffel Tower, which is in Paris, is famous."

Main Clause: The Eiffel Tower is famous

Relative Clause: which is in Paris (extra information)

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Key Differences Between Complement and Relative Clauses

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Conclusion
Complement clauses complete the meaning of a verb, noun, or adjective.

Relative clauses describe a noun and provide more information about it.

Both are subordinate clauses, meaning they depend on a main clause to form a complete
sentence.

Understanding these structures helps improve sentence construction and clarity in both writing
and speech.

Answer no#5
Generative Grammar is a linguistic theory developed by Noam Chomsky, which considers
grammar as a system of rules inherent in the human mind, enabling individuals to generate an
infinite number of sentences from a finite set of rules. Over time, various models of generative
grammar have evolved, refining Chomsky’s original framework. Below is a detailed explanation
of these models:

1. Standard Theory (1957-1965)

Introduced in Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures (1957), this model focuses on transformational

rules that convert deep structures into surface structures.

Deep Structure: Represents the underlying syntactic and semantic relations of a sentence.

Surface Structure: Represents the final syntactic form of the sentence as spoken or written.

Transformational rules modify the deep structure to form the surface structure.
Example:

Deep Structure: "John is eager [for John to win]."

Surface Structure: "John is eager to win."

2. Extended Standard Theory (1965-1973)

Developed after Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), this model refines the original theory by
adding constraints on transformations.

It emphasizes the relationship between syntax and semantics.

Introduces the idea that deep structure directly influences meaning.

3. Revised Extended Standard Theory (1973-1980)

Introduces more constraints on transformations, reducing unnecessary derivations.

Includes developments like X-bar theory, which provides a more structured approach to phrase
structure.
4. Government and Binding Theory (1981)

Presented in Lectures on Government and Binding (1981), this theory replaces the deep/surface
structure distinction with multiple interacting levels of representation.

Introduces modules like:

X-bar Theory: Explains phrase structure.

Theta Theory: Governs the assignment of roles to noun phrases.

Binding Theory: Describes pronoun reference.

Move-α (Move Alpha): A general transformation rule allowing elements to move within a
sentence.

5. Minimalist Program (1993 - Present)

Introduced in The Minimalist Program (1993), this model seeks to simplify grammar by using
the least number of rules necessary.

Focuses on economy of derivation (simpler transformations) and economy of representation

(optimal structure).
Introduces two key levels:

Logical Form (LF): Related to meaning.

Phonetic Form (PF): Related to pronunciation.

Argues that syntactic structures derive from an optimal computational system in the human
brain.

6. Distributed Morphology (1993-Present)

Developed alongside the Minimalist Program, this model integrates syntax and morphology.

Suggests that morphological processes occur post-syntactically, meaning words are built after
the syntactic structure is complete.

7. Optimality Theory (1993-Present)

Though originally developed for phonology, it has been applied to syntax.

Proposes that linguistic forms result from competing constraints rather than strict rules.

The most optimal structure is selected based on ranked constraints.

8. Nanosyntax (2000s-Present)

A recent development that breaks down syntactic structure into even smaller units.

Suggests that syntax operates at a more granular level, where even morphemes are structured
hierarchically.

Conclusion

Generative Grammar has evolved from a rigid rule-based system to a more flexible,
computationally efficient model. While early models focused on transformational rules, later
models like the Minimalist Program emphasize simplicity and efficiency. These developments
continue to shape modern linguistic research, particularly in syntax and cognitive science.