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Chromosome Structure
 In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like
structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.

Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not even under a microscope—
when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes
becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a
microscope.

During interphase (S phase) the DNA replicates to create two identical strands
of DNA called chromatids (Each chromatid is made up of one very long,
condensed DNA molecule, which is made up of a series of genes), joined together
by a narrow region called the centromere.
Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides
the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is
labeled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.” The
location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific genes.
The two chromatids that make up the double structure of a chromosome are known
as ‘sister chromatids’.
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It is important that the sister chromatids are identical (contain the same genes)
because this is key to cell division, as one chromatid goes into one daughter cell and
one goes into the other daughter cell during mitosis, ensuring the daughter cells
are genetically identical.
The ends of the chromatids in chromosomes are ‘sealed’ with protective
structures called telomeres.
The Significance of Telomeres

 Telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromatid,

which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with
neighboring chromosomes. It is essential for maintaining the integrity and stability
of linear eukaryotic genomes.
 They are made of non-coding DNA (DNA that does not contain genes) that is made
up of short base sequences that are repeated many times (multiple repeat
sequences).
 In telomeres, one strand is rich in the base guanine (G) and the other strand is rich
in the complementary base cytosine (C).
 The main function of telomeres is to ensure that the very ends of the DNA molecules
are included in DNA replication during mitosis (the copying enzyme responsible for
DNA replication is unable to run right to the very end of the DNA molecule and stops
a little short of the end).
 If this end part of the DNA molecule contained an important gene, that piece of
genetic information would be lost during DNA replication.
 In each subsequent cell division, a little more genetic information would be lost.
 Telomeres therefore act as a ‘buffer’ region of non-essential DNA and ensure
that no important coding sections near the ends of the DNA molecules are
left out of the replication process.
 This ensures no genes are lost during cell division (the loss of vital genes can
even result in cell death) and allows for continued replication of a cell.
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 To avoid the risk of losing genes most cells have an enzyme called telomerase that
adds additional bases at each end (the telomeres).
 Some cells (generally specialised cells) do not have telomerase to ‘top up’ their
telomeres and therefore after a certain number of cell divisions the cell dies, this
has been connected with the ageing process.
 Telomere length regulation and maintenance contribute to normal human cellular
aging and human diseases.
The cell cycle
 The cell cycle is the regular sequence of events that takes place between one cell
division and next.
 It has 3 phases: Interphase, nuclear division (either mitosis or meiosis) and cell
division /division of cytoplasm/cytokinensis.
 The length of the cell cycle is very variable depending on environmental conditions,
the cell type and the organism.
 For example, onion root tip cells divide once every 20 hours (roughly) but human
intestine epithelial cells divide once every 10 hours (roughly)

The movement from one phase to another is triggered by chemical signals

called cyclins. They build up and attach to enzymes called cyclin – dependent
kinases (CDKs) then they phosphorylated other proteins, changing the shape and
bring about the next stage in the cell cycle.
E.g phosphorylation of the chromatin in the nucleus makes the chromosomes
denser.
Phosphorylation of proteins in the nuclear membrane which lead to breakdown of
nuclear membrane.
During Interphase the cell increases in mass and size and carries out its normal
cellular functions (eg. synthesising proteins and replicating its DNA ready for
mitosis)
01. Interphase (between mitotic events) has 3 stages: (G1+S+G2)
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I.G1-phase (Gap 1 phase):

It is at some point during the G1 phase a signal is received telling the cell
to divide again.
cells "monitor" their environment, and when the requisite signals are received by
substances produce to inhibit or stimulate onset of next phase as appropriate.
The cells synthesize RNA, enzymes and proteins to induce growth by
synthesizing new organelles. Cell metabolic rate is high. This is the shortest
phase in cell cycle.
II.S-phase (Synthesis phase):
DNA replication occurs. During this stage histone protein synthesis and cover each
DNA strand. Each original chromosome has 1 DNA molecule --> after replication
each chromosome has 2 identical DNA molecules (2 chromatids), they are joined
together at the centromere. So, the cell is 4n.
II.G2- phase (Gap 2 phase):
cells continue to grow and new DNA is checked and errors are repaired. prepare for
mitosis. Organelles (mitochondria and chloroplasts) are replicated. For most of the
cell cycle, the cell continues with its normal activities. It also grows (produce new
molecules of proteins and other substances --> increase the quantity of cytoplasm
in the cell).
Other preparations for cell division are made (e.g. production of tubulin protein,
which is used to make microtubules for the mitotic spindle).
02. Nuclear division Mitotic phase (M-phase):
 The mother cell divides into 2 genetically identical daughter cells. 2 chromatids
split apart and move to opposite ends of the cell.
 A new nuclear envelope forms around each group.
 These 2 nuclei each contain a complete set of DNA molecules identical to those in
the original (parent) cell.
 Mitosis produces 2 genetically identical nuclei from one parent nucleus.

Stages of Mitosis
 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division by which two genetically identical daughter
nuclei are produced that are also genetically identical to the parent cell nucleus
(they have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell)
 Although mitosis is, in reality, one continuous process, it can be divided into four
main stages
 These stages are:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
 Most organisms contain many chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells (eg. humans
have 46) but the diagrams below show mitosis of an animal cell with only four
chromosomes, for simplicity
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 The different colours of the chromosomes are just to show that half are from the
female parent and half from the male parent
I. Prophase

 Chromosomes become more coiled, becoming shorter and thicker (condense). and
are now visible when stained.
 The chromosomes consist of two identical chromatids called sister chromatids (each
containing one DNA molecule) that are joined together at the centromere.
 The two centrosomes (replicated in the G2 phase just before prophase) move
towards opposite poles (opposite ends of the nucleus). Spindle
fibres (protein microtubules) begin to emerge from the centrosomes (consists of two
centrioles in animal cells) microtubules start to radiate from the centromere forming
an aster.
 the centrosomes organise the production of microtubules that form the spindle
fibers of the mitotic spindle.
 The nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane) breaks down into small vesicles and the
nucleolus disappears.
II. Metaphase
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 Centrosomes reach opposite poles. Spindle fibers (protein microtubules)

continue to extend from centrosomes.
 Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle (also known as the metaphase
plate) right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes.
 Spindle fibers (protein microtubules) reach the chromosomes and attach to the
centromeres by kinetochore.
 Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber originating from opposite
poles.
III. Anaphase

 The centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each chromosome are
pulled apart and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibers
attached to the kinetochore regions.
 The separated sister chromatids are now referred to as daughter
chromosomes.
 The alignment and separation in metaphase and anaphase ensure that each
daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome.
IV. Telophase
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 Chromatides have reached to the opposite poles. The chromosomes uncoil and
become diffuse/decondense forming chromatine.
 The nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of
the cell.
 Nucleoli reappear.
 The spindle fibers disappear
03. Cytokinesis (cell division): division of the cytoplasm.
 Follows M phase.
 Once the nucleus has divided into two genetically identical nuclei, the whole cell
divides and one nucleus moves into each cell to create two genetically identical
daughter cells.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis involves constriction of the cytoplasm (due to the
tightening of contractile fibres around the centre of the cell ) between the
two nuclei and in plant cells a new cell wall is formed.
 Finally Equal distribution of organelles and cytoplasm into each daughter cell occurs.
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Difference between mitosis in plant cell and animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell

Centriole is not present Centriole is present
No aster formation Aster forms
A cell plate is formed during cell Cell division involves furrowing
division and cleavage of cytoplasm
Occur mainly in meristems (root and Occur in tissues throughout the
Shoot tips) body

Significance of mitosis
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Mitosis is the process of nuclear division by which two genetically identical daughter

nuclei are produced that are also genetically identical to the parent nucleus.
 The process of mitosis is of great biological significance and is fundamental to
many biological processes:
1. Growth of multicellular organisms
 The two daughter cells produced are genetically identical to one another (clones)
and have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
 This enables unicellular zygotes (as the zygote divides by mitosis) to grow into
multicellular organisms.
 Growth may occur across the whole body of the organism or be confined to certain
regions, such as in the meristems (growing points) of plants.
2. Replacement of cells & repair of tissues
 Damaged tissues can be repaired by mitosis followed by cell division.
 As cells are constantly dying, they need to be continually replaced by
genetically identical cells
 In humans, for example, cell replacement occurs particularly rapidly in the skin and
the lining of the gut.
 Some animals can regenerate body parts, for example, zebrafish can regenerate fins
and axolotl’s regenerate legs and their tail amongst other parts.
3.Asexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals of a species by a single
parent organism – the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and also to
each other (clone).
 During asexual reproduction large number of organisms can be produced over short
period of time and there is no need of finding a mate for reproduction.
 Since all the members are genetically identical small change in the environment can
wiped out the whole population.
 For unicellular organisms such as Amoeba, cell division results in the reproduction of
a genetically identical offspring.
 For multicellular organisms (as seen with many plant species) new individuals grow
from the parent organism (by cell division) and then detach (‘bud off’) from the
parent in different ways. Some examples of these are budding in Hydra and yeast
and runners from strawberries.
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Observing Mitosis
Mitosis in Root Tips: Observing & Drawing
 Growth in plants occurs in specific regions called meristems.
 The root tip meristem can be used to study mitosis.
 The root tip meristem can be found just above the protective root cap.
 In the root tip meristem, there is a zone of cell division that contains cells
undergoing mitosis
 Pre-prepared slides of root tips can be studied or temporary slides can be prepared
using the squash technique (root tips are stained and then gently squashed,
spreading the cells out into a thin sheet and allowing individual cells undergoing
mitosis to be clearly seen).
Method
 Garlic or onion (Allium cepa) root tips are most commonly used (the bulbs can be
encouraged to grow roots by suspending them over water for a week or two).
 Remove the tips of the roots (about 1cm) and place in a suitable stain (eg. warm,
acidified acetic orcein, which stains chromosomes a deep purple).
 The stained root tip is gently squashed on a glass slide using a blunt instrument (eg.
the handle of a mounting needle).
 Cells undergoing mitosis (similar to those in the images below) can be seen and
drawn.
 Annotations can then be added to these drawings to show the different stages of
mitosis
Analysis
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Micrograph showing a cell undergoing prophase (P)Micrograph showing cells

undergoing metaphase (M) and anaphase (A)
How a Tumour Forms
 Cancers start when changes occur in the genes that control cell division. A change in
any gene is known as a mutation. Several genes must mutate before a cell
becomes cancerous. This can happen just by chance. If the mutated gene is one
that causes cancer it is referred to as an oncogene.
 Mutations are common events and don’t lead to cancer most of the time.
 Most mutations either result in early cell death or result in the cell being destroyed
by the body’s immune system.
 As most cells can be easily replaced, these events usually have no harmful effect on
the body.
 The mutations that result in the generation of cancerous cells do not result in early
cell death or in the cell being destroyed by the body’s immune system.
 This means that the harmful mutation occurring in the original cell can be passed
on to all that cell’s descendants.
 Cancers demonstrate how important it is that cell division is precisely controlled, as
cancers arise due to uncontrolled mitosis.
 Cancerous cells divide repeatedly and uncontrollably, forming a tumour (an irregular
mass of cells).
 A typical tumour contains around a thousand million cancerous cells by the time it is
detected.
 Some tumours (such as warts) do not spread from their original site – these are
known as benign tumours and do not cause cancer.
 Some tumours spread through the body, invading and destroying other tissues –
these are known as malignant tumours and cause cancer.
 Malignant tumours interfere with the normal functioning of the organ / tissue in
which they have started to grow (eg. they may block the intestines, lungs or blood
vessels).
 Malignant tumour cells can break off the tumour and travel through the blood and /
or lymphatic system to form secondary growths in other parts of the body.
 The spreading of cancers in this way is known as metastasis.
 Metastasis is very dangerous as it can be very difficult to detect, locate and
remove secondary cancers.
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Carcinogens are any agents that may cause cancer (eg. UV light, tar in tobacco
smoke and X-rays). If the agent causes cancer, it is described as carcinogenic
The great majority of cancers (90-95%) are due to environment factors such as
1. Tobacco (tar) - 25%-30%
2. Diet and obesity – 30%-35%
3. Infection 15%-20% - viruses (e.g. human papilloma virus - HPV, causing cervical
cancer).
4. Ionizing radiation (from X ray and radioactive sources emitting α, β or γ radiation)
5. ultraviolet radiation (in sunlight)
6. Physical agents (e. g. asbestos)
7. Stress
8. Inheritance of certain possible genes
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9. Hormones – certain hormones promote cell proliferation, differentiation suggesting

possible involvement in carcinogenesis. Hormones are important agents in sex –
related cancers such as breast, ovary and testis and also thyroid cancer and bone
cancer.

Mitotic Index
Is a measure of how actively the cells in a tissue are dividing.
Mitotic Index = Cell in mitosis / total number of cells.
Mitotic index can be used to identify actively dividing tissues, including cancer tissues. it
also used to measure the effectiveness of treatment for cancer.
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Haploid & Diploid Cells

 A diploid cell is a cell that contains two complete sets of chromosomes (2n).
 These chromosomes contain the DNA necessary for protein synthesis and cell
function.
 Nearly all cells in the human body are diploid with 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes in
their nucleus.
 Haploid cells contain one complete set of chromosomes (n)
 In other words they have half the number of chromosomes compared to diploid cells.
 Humans have haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes in their nucleus.
 These haploid cells are called gametes and they are involved in sexual reproduction.
 For humans they are the female egg and the male sperm.
 Haploidy and diploidy are terms that can be applied to cells across different species
 They describe the number of sets of chromosomes, not the total number of
chromosomes.

The Need for Reduction Division during Meiosis

 During fertilization the nuclei of gametes fuse together to form the nucleus of
the zygote.
 Both gametes must contain the correct number of chromosomes in order for the
zygote to be viable. If a zygote has too many or too few chromosomes it may not
survive.
 For a diploid zygote this means that the gametes must be haploid.
n + n = 2n
 Meiosis produces haploid gametes during sexual reproduction.
 The first cell division of meiosis is a reduction division.
 This is a nuclear division that reduces the chromosome number of a cell.
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 In humans the chromosome number is reduced from 46 (diploid) to 23 (haploid).

 The reduction in chromosome number during meiosis ensures the gametes formed
are
haploid.

Homologous Chromosomes
 In diploid cells there are two complete sets of chromosomes in the nucleus.
 Chromosomes have a characteristic shape.
 They have a fixed length.
 The position of the centromere is in a particular location.
 These characteristic features allow for each chromosome to be identified in a
photomicrograph.
 In photomicrographs chromosomes are often grouped into their homologous pairs
 Homologous chromosomes:
 Carry the same genes in the same positions
 Are the same shape
 During fertilization a diploid zygote is formed.
 In a zygote one chromosome of each homologous pair comes from the female
gamete and the other comes from the male gamete.
 Having the same genes in the same order helps homologous chromosomes line up
alongside each other during meiosis.

Meiosis in Animal & Plant Cells

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Meiosis is a form of nuclear division that results in the production


of haploid cells from diploid cells.
 It produces gametes in plants and animals that are used in sexual reproduction.
 Meiosis involves two divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II.
 Meiosis I (reduction division): Resulting in 2 daughter nuclei (haploid) half the
number of chromosomes of the parent nucleus.
 Meiosis II: behaves like mitosis results in total of 4 haploid nuclei.
 Within each division there are the following stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase
Meiosis I -Prophase 1

 DNA condenses and becomes visible as chromosomes.

DNA replication has already occurred so each
chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined
together by a centromere.
 The chromosomes are arranged side by side
in homologous pairs.
 A pair of homologous chromosomes is called a
bivalent.
 As the homologous chromosomes are very close
together the crossing over of non-sister chromatids
may occur.
 The point at which the crossing over occurs is called
the chiasma (chiasmata; plural).
 In this stage centrioles migrate to opposite poles and
the spindle is formed.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down and
the nucleolus disintegrates.

Metaphase I
 The bivalents line up along the equator of the
spindle, with the spindle fibers attached to the
centromeres.

Anaphase I
 The homologous pairs of chromosomes are
separated as microtubules pull whole
chromosomes to opposite ends of the spindle.
 The centromeres do not divide.
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Telophase I
 The chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles.


Spindle fibres start to break down.

Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelopes form around
the two groups of
 This is when the division of the
chromosomes and nucleoli reform.
 Some plant cells go straight into
 meiosis II without
Cytoplasm reformation
and Cell of also
organelles the get
nucleus in telophase
distributed betweenI.the two developing cells. occurs.
 In animal cells: the cell surface membrane pinches inwards creating a cleavage
furrow in the middle of the cell which contracts, dividing the cytoplasm in half.
 In plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus gather along the equator of the
spindle (the cell plate). The vesicles merge with each other to form the new cell
surface membrane and also secrete a layer of calcium pectate which becomes
the middle lamella. Layers of cellulose are laid upon the middle lamella to form the
primary and secondary walls of the cell.
 The end product of cytokinesis in meiosis I is two complete haploid cells.

Second division of Meiosis: Meiosis II

There is no interphase between meiosis I

and meiosis II so the DNA is not
replicated.
The second division of meiosis is almost
identical to the stages of mitosis.
Prophase II
The nuclear envelope
breakdown and chromosomes
condense. A spindle forms at a right
angle to the old one.
Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up in a single file
along the equator of the
Anaphase II spindle.

 Centromeres divide and

individual chromatids are pulled
to opposite poles.
 This creates four groups of
chromosomes that have half the
number of chromosomes compared
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Cytokinesis of meiosis II

 Cytoplasm divides as new cell surface membranes are formed creating four
haploid cells.

How meiosis causes variation: Prophase of meiosis I

 Having genetically different offspring can be advantageous for natural selection.
 Meiosis has several mechanisms that increase the genetic diversity of
gametes produced.
 Both crossing over and independent assortment (random orientation) result
in different combinations of alleles in gametes.
1. Crossing over
 Crossing over is the process by which non-sister chromatids exchange alleles.
 Process:
 During meiosis I homologous chromosomes pair up and are in very close proximity
to each other.
 The non-sister chromatids can cross over and get entangled. These crossing
points are called chiasmata. The entanglement places stress on the DNA
molecules.
 As a result of this a section of chromatid from one chromosome may break and
rejoin with the chromatid from the other chromosome.
 This swapping of alleles is significant as it can result in a new combination of
alleles on the two chromosomes.
 There is usually at least one, if not more, chiasmata present in each bivalent during
meiosis
 Crossing over is more likely to occur further down the chromosome away from the
centromere
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2. Independent assortment
 Independent assortment is the production of different combinations of alleles in
daughter cells due to the random alignment of homologous pairs along the
equator of the spindle during metaphase I.
 The different combinations of chromosomes in daughter cells increases genetic
variation between gametes.
 In prophase I homologous chromosomes pair up and in metaphase I they are pulled
towards the equator of the spindle.
 Each pair can be arranged with either chromosome on top, this is completely
random.
 The orientation of one homologous pair is independent / unaffected by the
orientation of any other pair.
 The homologous chromosomes are then separated and pulled apart to different poles.
 The combination of alleles that end up in each daughter cell depends on how the pairs
of homologous chromosomes were lined up.
 To work out the number of different possible chromosome combinations the formula
2n can be used, where n corresponds to the number of chromosomes in a haploid cell.
 For humans this is 223 which calculates as 8 324 608 different combinations.
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Fusion of Gametes
 Meiosis creates genetic variation between the gametes produced by an individual
through crossing over and independent assortment. This means each gamete carries
substantially different alleles.
 During fertilization any male gamete can fuse with any female gamete to form a zygote.
This random fusion of gametes at fertilization creates genetic variation between
zygotes as each will have a unique combination of alleles. There is an almost zero
chance of individual organisms resulting from successive sexual reproduction being
genetically identical.

Gametogenesis in mammals
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In humans meiosis occur inside the testes

and ovaries. The formation of male gametes
is known as spermatogenesis.

The formation of male gamete is known as

spermatogenesis. Sperm production is takes
place inside tubules in the testes. the diploid
cells divide by mitosis to form
spermatogonia (2n).then this spermatogonia
grows to form primary spermatocytes (Refer
to the diagram) .

The first division of meiosis takes place

forming 2 haploid secondary spermatocytes.

The second division of meiosis then

produces haploid spermatides, which mature
into spermatozoa.
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Overall length 50 – 60 micro

meters
They must remain in suspension in
the semen to transport through
the female reproductive tract. For
that they need a long, beating tail.

They must be able to penetrate

the protective barrier around the
ovum using enzymes contained in
the acrosome.

The formation of female gamete is known as

oogenesis. Diploid cells are divided by mitosis
to produce many oogonia. these begin to divide
by meiosis, but stop when they reach prophase
1. At this stage they are called primary oocytes
(Refer to the diagram) .

Then after puberty some of the primary oocytes

proceed from prophase 1 to the end of the first
meiotic division, forming 2 haploid cells. but this
division is uneven; because one cell get more
cytoplasm and become secondary oocytes,
while the other cell get less cytoplasm and
becomes a polar body and die off.

Each month one secondary oocyte is releseed

into oviduct from one of the ovaries. if it is
fertilized it competes its 2nd meiotic cell division.
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Gametogenesis in flowering plants

There are two phases in the life cycle of plants as,

1. Sporophyte generation
Diploid, produce spores by meiosis.
2. Gametophyte generation
Haploid, increase number of gametes by mitosis.
Gametophyte parts is reduced to anther and ovary, they produce pollen and ovum from
mother cell from meiosis.
Mosses and ferns like plants these two phases exist as separate plants. In flowering plants
these two phases have been combined into one plant.

Development of pollen grain / The formation of pollen (Microgametes)

Each anther contains 4 pollen sacs, in each pollen sac there is large number of pollen
mother cells. (Microspore mother cells), which are diploid.

Pollen mother cells divide by meiosis to foam haploid microspores. This occurs inside
the pollen sac.
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Inside the anther, 2n pollen mother cells divided to form

four haploid cells. The nuclei of each of these haploid cells
then divided by mitosis. Resulting in cells that each
contains two haploid nuclei.
Theses cell manure into pollen grains. (Each surrounded by
a protective wall made out of a tough exine and thinner
intine).
In pollen grains one cell has envelop to other to foam a
pollen grain, as result pollen grain contains two haploid
nuclei. (Tube nucleus and generative nucleus).

Tube nucleus - produce the pollen tube to penetrate

down into the ovule.
Generative nucleus- will fuses with the nucleus of the
ovule to form a new individual.
The generative nucleus undergoes mitosis after pollination
to produce two male gamete nuclei.

The formation of egg cell (Megagametes) / Development of embryo sac

In some plants there is only one ovule, where as in other plants there are more ovules,
Ovule is attached to the wall of the ovary by a pad of special tissues called placenta.
Inside each ovule a large diploid spore mother cell develops, This cell divides by meiosis to
produce four haploid cells megaspore. All the other 3 degenerate but one haploid cell
survive and it develops into an embryo sac. The haploid nucleus inside the embryonic sac
divide by mitosis 3 times to form 8 haploid nuclei. One of these becomes the female
gamete.
The megaspores undergo 3 mitotic divisions which result in an embryo sac. The embryo
sac contains,

1. An egg cell (megagamete)

2. 2 polar bodies /nuclei
3. 3 antipodal cells
4. 2 synergids cells
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When male gamete inside pollen grain fuse with female gamete inside ovule fertilization
will takes place. This forms a diploid zygote, which grows into an embryo plant.

Fertilization in plants

The pollen grains land on the surface of the stigma of the flower during pollination.
Then the pollen grain begins to grow/germinate to foam a pollen tube,
Pollen tube penetrates through style, it continues to grow towards the ovary, passes
through the micropyle of the ovule.
Usually the generative cell (with 2 male gamete nuclei) travels down through the pollen
tube.
Once the pollen tube has entered the micropyle, the two male nuclei are passed into the
ovule so that fertilization can occur.
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one male nucleus fuses (n) with the nuclei of the two polar bodies (n) (n) to foam
the endosperm (3n) nucleus which is triploid.
The other male nucleus (n) fuses with the egg cell (n) to foam diploid zygote (2n).
At this point fertilization is complete and the development of the embryo and seed
begins.
ovum
Fertilised ovum=seed

Ovary--- fruit

Fertilization
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There are two types fertilizations as,

External fertilization
Occurs outside the body of the organisms
They shed gametes into the environment.
Occur only in aquatic species, (jelly fish) because spermatozoa and ova are very
vulnerable to drying and rapidly destroyed in the air, and it is not an option for organisms
that live on land.
External fertilization is very wasteful method, many of the gamete does not meet.
Internal fertilization
Internal fertilization involves the transfer of the male gamete directly to the female.
This method ensures the fertilization.
Complex animals (insects, vertebrate) have evolved a system where by the male gamete
are released directly into the body of the female during mating.
Internal fertilization ensures the gamete to be kept in a moist environment and place as
close together as possible, to maximize the change of successful fertilization, (fusion of
male and female gamete).
Fertilization in humans
Occurs in upper part of oviduct.
The sperms are introduced into the female by sexual intercourse.
The ovum is fully viable for only a few hours and sperm will survive a day or two in the
female reproductive tract. Because of that success of sexual reproduction depends on
gamete meeting.
Ovum released at ovulation has not fully completed meiosis and is called a secondary
oocyte. (surrounded by protective jelly layer known as the zona pellucida and follicle
cells).

Once the many sperm surrounded the ovum (heads of the sperms touch the surface of the
ovum) the acrosome reaction is triggered.

At this point enzymes are released from the acrosome to digest the follicle cells and zona
pellucida (Capacitation). (Only one sperm alone does not produce sufficient enzymes to
penetrate the protective layers around the ovum, as a result very large number of sperm
released in ejaculation.)

Finally, one sperm will enter through the weaken protective barriers and touch the
surface membrane of the oocyte. At this point fertilization occurs.

At the time of fertilization the secondary oocyte undergoes its second meiotic division to
foam the haploid ovum to fuse with the haploid sperm.(finally forms the diploid zygote).

This strategy is used to avoid polyspermy (fertilization of egg by too many sperms), if
polyspermy occurs it would produce a nucleus containing too many sets of chromosomes.
As soon as the fertilization completes fertilization membrane forms (cortical granules
are released from the oocyte which combine with the zona pellucida to foam tough
membrane) around the fertilized ovum.
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Multiple alleles: As the name suggests, when a gene has more than 2 alleles

Sex linkage - a sex linked gene is a gene that is present on the X chromosome and
not the Y chromosome. e.g.: colour blindness, Haemophilia Recessive gene can be found
on X chromosome

Note: linkage refers to two or more gene located on the same chromosomes. Most linked
genes are found on the autosomes. Usually linked genes do not allow to independently
assorting as unlinked genes can do.

Dihybrid inheritance: Inheritance of 2 genes at once

Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I results in a
variety of genotypes in the gametes formed.
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dihybrid cross between 2 heterozygotes gives phenotypic Ratio of 9: 3: 3: 1 at second F2

generation. In this situation alleles of both genes show complete dominance and genes
are on different chromosomes

Interactions between loci - where different loci interact to affect one phenotypic
character
e.g.: alleles on 2 separate loci both affect the colour of feathers on a bird
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Note all the other examples learn is based on interactions between alleles at the same
locus. E.g Codominance alleles in flower colour in snapdragons, dominant and recessive
alleles in tomato plant, multiple alleles in the inheritance of the ABO blood groups. when
different loci interact to affect one phenotypic character.

Feather colour of chicken are foam by the interaction of two genes at different loci.

I-white feathers i- / C- Coulourd feathers,c

IiCc

Autosomal linkage
Genes are linked when two or more genes are present on the same chromosome =>
they tend to be inherited together and do not assort independently.

e.g.: Drosophila body colour gene and antennae shape gene

Body colour gene:
E = allele for striped body e = allele for ebony body
Antennal shape gene:
A = allele for normal antennae a = allele for aristopedia antennae
EEAA = genes not on same chromosome – so we can’t use this format
(EA)(EA) = genes on the same chromosome
 Parental genotype (EA)(EA) => gametes EA only
 Parental genotype (EA)(ea) => gametes EA or ea
 Parental genotype (ea)(ea) => gametes ea only

Parental Phenotype : Striped body normal antennae X ebony body Aristopedia antennae

Parental Genotype : (EA)(EA) X (ea)(ea)

Gamete: : EA X ea

F1 Genotype : all (EA) (ea)

F1 phenotype : Striped body normal antenne

Parental Phenotype: male striped body normal antenne X female ebony body aristopedia antenne

Perenral Genotype : (EA)(ea) X (ea)(ea)

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The test cross gives a ratio of the two

original parental types, but not the 1:1:1:1
ratio expected from a dihybrid cross

Usually there is no crossing

over in male drosophila
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The occasions when the ratios are not what you expect.
Sample size
Experimental error
Mutations linkage