Cell cycle

The cell cycle refers to the ordered sequence of

events that occur in a cell's life, leading to its
growth, division, and duplication. It encompasses
the period from the formation of a new cell
through its growth and division into two daughter
cells. The cell cycle is crucial for the growth,
development, and maintenance of organisms, as
well as for the reproduction of single-celled
organisms.

● G₁ phase
The G1 phase is the first phase of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells. It occurs after a
cell has divided and before it initiates DNA replication. The G1 phase is a period
of significant cellular growth and metabolic activity, during which the cell
prepares for DNA synthesis and subsequent cell division.
Key events that occur during the G1 phase include:
1. Growth: The cell increases in size by accumulating proteins, lipids, and
other molecules necessary for cellular functions and division.
2. Organelle Duplication: Organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, and
endoplasmic reticulum replicate to ensure that each daughter cell will
have sufficient organelles after division.
3. Cellular Metabolism: Metabolic processes, such as the production of ATP
(the energy currency of the cell) and the biosynthesis of macromolecules,
are highly active during the G1 phase to support the cell's growth and
preparation for division.
4. Regulatory Checkpoints: The G1 phase contains checkpoints that monitor
the cell's environment and internal conditions to ensure that it is ready to
progress to the next phase of the cell cycle. These checkpoints assess
factors such as cell size, nutrient availability, DNA damage, and signals
from neighboring cells before allowing the cell to proceed to the S phase,
where DNA replication occurs.
5. Cellular Functions: The cell carries out its specialized functions, which vary
depending on the cell type and tissue it belongs to. For example, a liver
cell in the G1 phase may perform functions related to detoxification, while a
skin cell may synthesize proteins involved in maintaining skin structure
and function.
 ● S phase
The S phase, or synthesis phase, is a critical stage in the cell cycle during which
DNA replication occurs. The primary purpose of the S phase is to ensure that
each daughter cell produced during cell division receives an identical copy of the
genetic material.
During the S phase:
​ 1. DNA Replication: The chromatin fibers, which consist of DNA and
associated proteins, begin to condense and become more compact.
Enzymes called DNA polymerases catalyze the replication of the DNA
molecule. Each strand of the DNA double helix serves as a template for the
synthesis of a new complementary strand. As a result, two identical copies
of the DNA molecule are produced, forming sister chromatids.
​ 2. Formation of Sister Chromatids: As DNA replication progresses, the
newly synthesized DNA strands remain attached to the original strands at
specific points called centromeres. At the end of the S phase, each
chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids, which are held
together at the centromere region.
​ 3. Checkpoint Control: The S phase is tightly regulated by checkpoint
mechanisms that ensure the accurate and complete replication of the
DNA before proceeding to the next phase of the cell cycle. Checkpoint
proteins monitor DNA integrity and detect any errors or damage that may
have occurred during replication. If DNA damage is detected, the cell cycle
can be halted to allow for repair mechanisms to fix the damage before cell
division proceeds.
​
● G₂ phase
The G2 phase is a critical stage during which the cell continues to grow and
prepares for cell division. The primary objectives of the G2 phase include
completing DNA replication, ensuring that the cell has accurately duplicated its
genetic material, and synthesizing the necessary proteins and organelles for
mitosis.
During G2 phase, several key events occur:
​ 1. Continued Growth: The cell continues to grow in size and accumulates
the necessary resources, such as proteins, lipids, and organelles, required
for cell division. This growth phase is essential to ensure that the daughter
cells will have sufficient resources to carry out their functions effectively.
​ 2. DNA Repair and Checkpoints: The cell undergoes a thorough inspection
to ensure that DNA replication during the S phase was accurate. Various
DNA repair mechanisms are activated to fix any errors or damage that
may have occurred during replication. Checkpoint proteins monitor the
integrity of the DNA and halt progression through the cell cycle if any
abnormalities are detected.
​ 3. Preparation for Mitosis: The cell synthesizes additional proteins and
structures required for mitosis. The mitotic spindle is responsible for
separating the duplicated chromosomes during cell division. Additionally,
the centrosomes, which organize the microtubules, replicate during the G2
phase.
​
Cell division

● Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division that occurs in somatic cells (non-reproductive
cells) and results in the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells, each
with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is essential for
growth, development, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction in many organisms.
Mitosis consists of several distinct phases:
​ Prophase:
● Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, each consisting of
two sister chromatids joined at the centromere.
● The nuclear envelope breaks down, allowing the mitotic spindle to
interact with the chromosomes.
● Centrosomes, containing pairs of centrioles, move to opposite poles
of the cell, and spindle fibers begin to extend from them.
​ Metaphase:
● Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate, an imaginary
plane equidistant from the two poles of the cell.
● Each chromosome is attached to spindle fibers at its centromere,
ensuring proper alignment.
​ Anaphase:
● Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the
cell, pulled by the shortening spindle fibers.
● Once separated, each chromatid is considered a separate
chromosome.
​ Telophase:
● Chromosomes reach the poles and decondense back into
chromatin.
● A new nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.
● The mitotic spindle disassembles, and cytokinesis begins.

Karyokinesis, or nuclear division, occurs during mitosis and specifically refers to

the division of the nucleus. This process is completed during telophase, when the
chromosomes have reached the poles and the nuclear envelopes begin to reform
around each set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic division and typically begins during
telophase or overlaps with it. It involves the division of the cytoplasm and
organelles to produce two separate daughter cells. In animal cells, a contractile
ring composed of actin filaments constricts the cell membrane, pinching the cell
into two. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei, eventually
developing into a new cell wall, dividing the cell into two daughter cells.

The significance of mitosis lies in its role in growth, development, and tissue
repair. By producing genetically identical daughter cells, mitosis ensures that
each new cell receives a complete set of chromosomes and the necessary cellular
components to function properly. In multicellular organisms, mitosis allows for the
growth and maintenance of tissues and organs by replacing old or damaged cells
with new ones.
Additionally, mitosis plays a crucial role in asexual reproduction, allowing
single-celled organisms to reproduce rapidly by dividing into two daughter cells.
Overall, mitosis is essential for the survival and propagation of organisms.

● Meiosis
Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing
organisms and results in the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells). Unlike
mitosis, which produces genetically identical daughter cells, meiosis reduces the
chromosome number by half, ensuring that when gametes fuse during
fertilization, the resulting zygote will have the correct chromosome number.
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II, each
with prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages. During meiosis I,
homologous chromosomes pair up and undergo genetic recombination through
a process called crossing over, where segments of DNA are exchanged between
chromatids. Meiosis II is similar to mitosis, involving the separation of sister
chromatids. The significance of meiosis lies in its role in sexual reproduction and
genetic diversity:
​ 1. Genetic Variation: Meiosis generates genetic diversity among offspring
through the processes of crossing over and random assortment of
chromosomes. This variation provides a mechanism for natural selection
to act upon, promoting adaptation and evolution within populations.
​ 2. Maintaining Chromosome Number: By reducing the chromosome
number by half in gametes, meiosis ensures that when fertilization occurs,
the resulting zygote will have the correct diploid chromosome number
characteristic of the species.
​ 3. Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction, as it
produces haploid gametes (sperm and egg cells) that can fuse during
fertilization to form a diploid zygote. This process allows for genetic
recombination between individuals, contributing to the genetic diversity of
offspring.