SECTION 2

Before The Wellbore

2.1 In Situ Conditions

2.2 In Situ Earth Stress

2.3 Effective Stress

2.4 Rock Strength

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 Wellbore Stability

2. 0 BEFORE THE WELLBORE

2.1 In Situ Conditions

Porosity
Porosity is the percent of void space within the rock.

The rocks of sedimentary basins always exhibit some porosity. As porosity

increases, the percent of fluid volume increases while the rock matrix
volume decreases. Increasing porosity weakens the rock. Shale, for
example, will change from brittle rock to ductile clay with sufficient water
content. The figure below shows typical porosity change with depth due to
compaction and cementation.

Porosity (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
Fluid Filled
Pores
Rock 5
Matrix

10
Depth (ft)

15

20

25
Shale

Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a rock to flow fluids; measured in units of
darcies.

Permeability acts to weaken the rock as the loss of water base mud filtrate
dissolves the grain-to-grain cement bond. Also, hydrostatic overbalance
forces water filtrate to penetrate the pores of the rock; which also weakens
the rock.

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 Wellbore Stability

The figure below shows typical permeability changes relative to depth for
shale and sandstone. Shales may have high porosity, but have very little
permeability.

Permeability (Darcies)
1 2 3 4
0
Fluid Filled
Pores Shale
Connected Sandstone
Porosity 5

10

Depth (ft)
15

20

25
Rock
Sandstone Matrix

Formation Pore Pressure - p

Formation pore pressure is the pressure of the naturally occurring fluid(s) in
the pores of the rock.
As long as the increase in overburden load from the rate of deposition does
not exceed the rate at which fluid can escape from the pore, a fluid
connection exists from surface to the depth of interest. Pore pressure is then
equal to the hydrostatic pressure of formation water (normal pressure).
Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of
formation water at a vertical depth of interest.
.465 p

Formation Water
Migrating to Surface
si/ft A
Depth

verage

8,000'

Transition Shale 3720 psi Pressure

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 Wellbore Stability

If the fluid cannot escape the pore, pore pressure begins to increase at a
faster-than-normal rate (abnormal pressure).

Abnormal formation pressure is greater than normal for the vertical depth
of interest.

8,000'

Transition Shale Abnormal

Pressure

Normal Trend

Depth
Formation Water Line
Migrating to Sand

Sub normal
Depleted Zone Pressure

3720 psi Pressure

Pore pressure of a permeable formation can be depleted below normal by

production operations (subnormal pressure).

Subnormal formation pressure is less than normal for the vertical depth
of interest.

Estimating Formation Pore Pressure

Formation pore pressure prediction is a highly specialized process. Prior to
drilling, qualitative geophysical methods are available to qualify the
presence of abnormal pressure at an approximate depth. Offset logs also
help estimate pore pressure.
Enhancements in geophysical interpretations have recently been made to
quantify the value of abnormal pressure prior to spudding the well. Before
development of this quantitative method, only qualitative information was
possible prior to drilling.

While drilling, several MWD/LWD logs provide real time evaluation of

formation pore pressure. "D" exponent plots can also indicate changes in
pore pressure.

Higher than normal porosity and sonic travel time (∆tc) indicate abnormal
pore pressure.

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 Wellbore Stability

2.2 In Situ Earth Stress

Prior to drilling, subsurface rocks are exposed to a balanced or near
balanced stress environment. The naturally occurring stress in place is
called the in situ stress. In situ stress is normally compressive due to the
weight of the overburden. For this reason, in rock mechanics compressive
stress is defined to be positive.

Overburden Stress - sv
Overburden stress is the pressure exerted on a formation at a given depth
due to the total weight of the rocks and fluids above that depth.

ER ESS
OV
STR
DEN
BUR

Weight of over
lying rocks &
water applies
stress to the
rock layer at a
vertical depth
of interest

HORI ES SES
ZONT
AL STR

Most formations are formed from a sedimentation/compaction geologic

history. Formations may vary significantly from the earth's surface to any
depth of interest. Shallow shales will be more porous and less dense than
shales at great depths.

Estimating Overburden Stress

Typically a value of 1 psi/ft is attributed to the overburden gradient, but at

shallow depths the actual value is much less and at greater depths
somewhat higher.

A density log can be used to determine the weight of the overburden. In the
absence of a density log, the overburden stress may be estimated from
alternatives such as Eaton's variable density curve or the Wylie time
average equation using sonic travel time, bulk density and porosity.

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 Wellbore Stability

As the overburden squeezes the rock vertically, it pushes horizontally.

Constraint by surrounding rock creates horizontal stress.

Horizontal Stress - sh , sH
In most drilling areas, the horizontal stresses are equal. When drilling
near massive structures such as salt domes or in tectonic areas, the
horizontal stresses will differ and are described as a minimum (sh) and a
maximum (sH).

Estimating Horizontal Stress

The minimum horizontal stress (sh) is normally determined from leak-off

tests. It is difficult to determine the maximum horizontal stress from field
measurements. Its value can be estimated using rock mechanics
equations.

2.3 Effective Stress

The rock matrix does not support the full load of overburden and horizontal
stress. Part of the load is supported by the fluid in the pore (pore pressure).
The net stress is the effective stress felt by the rock matrix. Effective stress
is used in rock mechanics to determine the stability of the wellbore.

Effective Overburden Stress - σv

The overburden stress that effectively stresses the rock matrix.

Effective Overburden Stress = Total Overburden Stress - Pore Pressure

σv = sv - p

9000 PSI
OVERBURDEN
Much like air pressure in a car
tire supports the weight of the ROCK
car, fluid pressure in the pore MATRIX
supports a portion of the
overburden load.
5000 PSI
Pore Pressure
The remaining portion of over-
burden stress is the load
effectively stressing the rock Effective 4000
OBS psi
matrix.

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 Wellbore Stability

Effective Horizontal Stress - σh, σH

Similarly, the effective horizontal stresses can be determined. Usually the
horizontal stresses are equal and the effective horizontal stress is equal to
the effective overburden stress times a lithology factor, k. The lithology
factor (k) is equal to 1 for fluids but is less than 1 for more rigid material
such as formation rock.

σh = σH = k x σv

Noncompressible Very stiff

Water fluids like water Putty Rock
materials like
have a k factor of 1. formation rock
have a much
Stiffer materials lower k factor
like putty have a (.37 is common
lower k factor (.7 - for shale.)
.9 for example.)
1000 psi 900 psi 500 psi

In tectonically active areas, the horizontal stresses are not equal. The
maximum horizontal stresses will be higher, or lower depending on tectonic
movements, by the additional tectonic stresses, th and tH. In these areas, the
effective horizontal stresses are described by a maximum and minimum
value.

σh = k x σv + th and σH = k x σv + tH

In extreme tectonic environments, tH may be sufficient to make the

horizontal stress higher than the vertical stress.

2.4 Rock Strength

Rock mechanics is the study of the mechanical behavior of subsurface
rocks.

Core samples (removed from in situ conditions) are usually tested in

compression with specialized laboratory equipment. To better simulate
subsurface conditions, core samples tested are also subjected to a confining
pressure (stress). The rock responds to the stress by changing in volume or
form (deformation) or both. The change in the rock volume or form due to
the applied stress is called strain.

Rocks subjected to compressive (+) or tensile (-) stress can go through three
stages of strain deformation. In elastic deformation, the rock deforms as
stress is applied but returns to its original shape as stress is relieved. In
elastic deformation, the strain is proportional to the stress (Hooke's Law).

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 Wellbore Stability

Elastic Ultimate Strength

Limit
50 Ultimate
Axial
Load Failure
40
Axial
Load 30 Plastic
(Compressive Confining Stress Deformation
Stress) Pressure (x1000 20
psi)
Elastic
10
Deformation
0
0 1 2 3 4
Strain (% of Deformation)

When applied stress reaches the elastic limit, the rock begins to exhibit
plastic deformation. In plastic deformation, the rock only partially returns
to its original shape as stress is relieved. If continued stress is applied,
fractures develop and the rock fails (ultimate failure).

Rocks can fail in a brittle manner, usually under low confining stress, or in a
ductile manner under higher confining stress.

Shear Strength and Shear Failure

Under compression rocks actually fail in shear - it is easier to slide rock
grains past each other than to crush them.

Axial Load (psi)

Shear
Shear Plane Failure

Confining
Pressure

High confining pressure resists sliding on the shear plane and the rock
appears stronger. If the confining pressure and axial load were equal, there
would be no shear stress on the rock and no shear failure.

Equal stresses promote stability and unequal stresses promote shear

stress and possible shear failure.

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 Wellbore Stability

It is not possible to accurately reproduce the effects of pore pressure on

rock strength when testing core samples from the field. In actual borehole
conditions, pore pressure exerts a force that tends to push the rock grains
apart. This is why the effective stress is used in rock mechanics when
applied to wellbore stability studies.
Cohesive Strength
Bonded Grains (Cement)

Overburden
Stress (sv)
Pore
Pressure

Horizontal
Stress (sh)

Increased Pore Pressure

Reduces the Effective Stress
Horizontal
Stress (sH)

Rock mechanics uses failure models to predict wellbore stability. One such
model considers all three effective stresses to calculate the resultant shear
stress. The "mean" effective stress is used by this model to describe the
stress state of the rock.

σv + σh + σH
Mean Effective Stress =
3

The failure model used in the illustrations (Mohr-Coulomb) neglects the

intermediate stress and considers only the greatest and least effective
stress.The greatest shear stress on the rock occurs on the two-dimensional
plane consisting of the greatest and least stress. The greatest/and or least
stress could be any of the three depending on in situ environment and well
conditions.

Greatest Effective
Stress (σv, σh, or σH)

Least Effective
Stress (σv, σh, or σH)

(Intermediate stress acts

perpendicular to the figure)

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 Wellbore Stability

The shear stress that fails the rock must overcome the cohesive strength,
S0 (bonding together of the grains), and the frictional resistance between
the grains (µσ). The frictional resistance between the grains is the product
of the coefficient of friction (µ) and the effective compressive stress (σ).

Shear Stress = Cohesive Strength + Frictional Resistance

τ = S0 + µσ
The shear strength is defined as the shear stress that fails the rock. The
coefficient of friction is also expressed in terms of an angle of internal
friction (φ).
µ = tan φ

The cohesive strength (S0) and the angle of internal friction (φ) are
obtained from conducting compression tests on core samples (or
estimated from logs) from the field. Several tests on cores are necessary
to determine these values.

The shaded area shown below indicates the "stress-state" of one such
core sample at failure. The compression stress (σf) that fails the core
sample (greatest stress) is plotted on the horzontal axis along with the
confining pressure (σc) used for that test (least stress).

Shear Failure Shear <=φ

Stress From Test 2 & 3
Stress (τ) Failure Shear
Stress From Test 1

Stress-State 3
S0 Stress-State 2
Stress-State 1

Effective Compressive Stress (σ)

Compression
Pressure (Stress)
That Fails Core
Confining Sample (σf)
Pressure (σc)

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 Wellbore Stability

The higher the confining pressure, the greater the compressive stress
necessary to fail the sample. Several tests at increasing confining
pressures produce successive stress-states of increasing shear strength.

The "shear strength line" is approximated by the line giving the best fit
to the maximum shear stress points on the failure plane from several
such tests. The equation for this line is given below.

τ = S0 + σ tan φ

A "shear strength line" or failure envelope shown below is produced

from such core tests (a similar stability chart is used when considering
the mean effective stress, (σv + σh + σH ) / 3).

The greatest and least effective stress on the wellbore are also calculated
using in situ stress, pore pressure, hole inclination, etc., and indicated on
the chart. If the stress-state produces a shear stress that falls beneath the
shear strength line, the wellbore is stable.

If the shear stress falls outside the stability envelope, the wellbore is
unstable and formation failure will occur.

e
th Lin
Failure t reng
ar S
Shear She
Stress, τ
Stability
S0 Envelope

Stress-State

Least
Effective Stress
Greatest Effective Compressive Stress, σ
Effective Stress

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 Wellbore Stability

Tensile Failure
Tensile Failure results from stresses that tend to pull the rock apart (tensile
stress). Rocks exhibit very low tensile strength.

Tensile
Stress

Tensile Stress Exceeds

the Tensile Strength and the Rock Fails

Time
Geological processes have great lengths of time in which to operate.
Although geologic time is impossible to duplicate in a laboratory, it is
possible from experiments to make some deductions concerning the
influence of time.

One analysis of special interest to drilling operations is that of creep.

Creep is a slow continuous deformation of rock with the passage of time,
even though the stress may be above or below the elastic limit.

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