Real-time And Embedded Systems

course code: cosc3026

Chapter One

Introduction : Embedded System

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 Definition of Embedded Systems

• Something that is attached to another thing.

• An embedded system is a microprocessor-based computer
hardware system with software that is designed to perform
dedicated function, either as an independent system or as a
part of a large system.
• At the core is an integrated circuit designed to carry out
computation for real-time operations.
• For example.
• A fire alarm system is an embedded system, it will
sense only smoke.

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➢ An embedded system is a combination of
✓ Hardware
✓ Software
➢ And it is supposed to do one specific task only.
➢ An embedded system is designed to run on its own without human
intervention and may be required to respond to events in real time.
Example 1: Washing Machine
A washing machine from an embedded systems point of view has:
A. Hardware: Buttons, Display & buzzer, electronic circuitry.
B. Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software
which drives controls & monitors the various operations
possible.

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 Application Areas
where in our daily life do we use embedded systems?
• Medical Systems
– pace maker, patient monitoring systems, injection
systems, intensive care units, …
• Office Equipment
– printer, copier, fax, …
• Tools
– multimeter, oscilloscope, line tester, GPS, …
• Banking
– ATMs, statement printers, …
• Transportation
– Planes, Trains, Automobiles and Boats
• Radar, Traffic lights, Signaling systems, …
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• Automobiles
– engine management, trip computer, cruise control,
immobilizer, car alarm,
– airbag, ABS, …
• Building Systems
– elevator, heater, air conditioning, lighting, key card
entries, locks, alarm systems, …
• Agriculture
– feeding systems, milking systems, …
• Space
– satellite systems, …

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Example 1: Car Door

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Example 2: Air Conditioner
An Air Conditioner from an embedded systems point of view has:
Hardware: Remote, Display & buzzer, Infrared Sensors,
electronic circuitry.
Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software
which drives controls & monitors the various operations
possible.
• The software monitors the external temperature through
the sensors and then releases the coolant or suppresses it.

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 Comparison of ES with general purpose system

• The Embedded System and the General-purpose computer are at

two extremes.
• The embedded system is designed to perform a specific task
whereas as per definition the general-purpose computer is
meant for general use.
• GP computer can be used for playing games, watching movies,
creating software, work on documents or spreadsheets etc.

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 Embedded System VS General Purpose Computer

Properties Embedded System General purpose computer

Hardware Special purpose hardware. Generic hardware.
OS Embedded OS / Real-time OS General purpose OS
Applications Execute specific set of applications Execute a variety of Applications
that are known at design-time.
Program Not programmable by end user Programmable by end user
Power Less More
Consumption
Response Time Usually Critical for some Not critical
applications
Software patch Not common Regularly done

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 Purpose Of Embedded System
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation
Embedded system designed for the purpose of data
collection performs acquisition of data from the external
world. (analog or digital)
Eg: Digital camera
2. Data communication
Embedded data communication systems are deployed in
applications from complex satellite communication to simple
home networking systems
E.g. Cellular phones, Network hubs, routers, Switches are
examples of dedicated data transmission embedded
systems.

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3. Data signal processing
Functionalities are employed in applications demanding signal
processing like speech coding, audio video codec, transmission
applications etc
Eg: Radar, Sonar, DVD players and a digital hearing aid is
a typical example of an embedded system employing
data processing
4. Monitoring
All embedded products coming under the medical domain are with
monitoring functions
E.g.: Electro cardiogram machine is intended to do the
monitoring of the heartbeat of a patient but it cannot impose
control over the heartbeat.

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5. Control
➢ A system with control functionality contains both sensors
and actuators
Eg: Air conditioner system used to control the room
temperature to a specified limit is a typical example for
CONTROL purpose.

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 Characteristics of Embedded systems

Application and Domain specific

• An embedded system is designed for a specific purpose only.
It will not do any other task.
• E.g. A washing machine can only wash, it cannot cook
• Certain embedded systems are specific to a domain.
• E.g. A hearing aid is an application that belongs to the
domain of signal processing.

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Reactive and Real time
• Certain Embedded systems are designed to react to the
events that occur in the nearby environment. These events
also occur real-time.
• Ex. An air conditioner adjusts its mechanical parts as soon
as it gets a signal from its sensors to increase or decrease
the temperature when the user operates it using a remote
control.
• An embedded system uses Sensors to take inputs and has
actuators to bring out the required functionality.

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Operation in harsh environment
• Certain embedded systems are designed to operate in harsh
environments like very high temperature of the deserts or
very low temperature of the mountains or extreme rains.
• These embedded systems have to be capable of sustaining
the environmental conditions it is designed to operate in.

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Distributed
• Certain embedded systems are part of a larger system and thus
form components of a distributed system.
• These components are independent of each other but have to
work together for the larger system to function properly.
• Ex. A car has many embedded systems controlled to its
dash board. Each one is an independent embedded system
yet the entire car can be said to function properly only if
all the systems work together.

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Small size and weight
• An embedded system that is compact in size and has light
weight will be desirable or more popular than one that is
bulky and heavy.
• Ex. Currently available cell phones. The cell phones that
have the maximum features are popular but also their size
and weight is an important characteristic.
• For convenience users prefer mobile phones than tablets.
(phone + tablet pc)

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Power concerns
• It is desirable that the power utilization and heat dissipation of
any embedded system be low.
• If more heat is dissipated then additional units like heat sinks
or cooling fans need to be added to the circuit.
• If more power is required then a battery of higher power or
more batteries need to be accommodated in the embedded
system.

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 Advantages & Disadvantages of ES

• Advantages
✓ Easily Customizable
✓ Low power consumption
✓ Low cost
✓ Enhanced performance
• Disadvantages
✓ High development effort
✓ Larger time to market

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 Components of Embedded Systems
• Analog Components
– Sensors, Actuators, Controllers, …
• Digital Components Hardware
– Processor, Coprocessors
– Memories
– Controllers, Buses
– Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
• Converters – A2D, D2A, …
• Software
– Application Programs Software
– Exception Handlers

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Microprocessor VS Microcontroller

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 …
Microprocessor Microcontroller
Microprocessor is the heart of Computer Micro Controller is the heart of an embedded
system. system.
it is only a processor, so memory and I/O Micro Controller has a processor along with
components need to be connected externally internal memory and I/O components.
Memory and I/O has to be connected Memory and I/O are already present, and the
externally, so the circuit becomes large. internal circuit is small.
You can’t use it in compact systems You can use it in compact systems.
Cost of the entire system is high Cost of the entire system is low
Due to external components, the total power As external components are low, total power
consumption is high consumption is less
Most of the microprocessors do not have Most of the microcontrollers offer power-
power saving features. saving mode.
It is used mainly in a washing machine, MP3
It is mainly used in personal computers.
players, and embedded systems.
Microprocessor has a smaller number of
Microcontroller has more register. Hence the
registers, so more operations are memory-
programs are easier to write.
based. 22
 …
Microprocessor Microcontroller
Microprocessors are based on Von Neumann Micro controllers are based on Harvard
model architecture
It is a byproduct of the development of
It is a central processing unit on a single
microprocessors with a CPU along with
silicon-based integrated chip.
other peripherals.
It has a CPU along with RAM, ROM,
It has no RAM, ROM, Input-Output units,
and other peripherals embedded on a
timers, and other peripherals on the chip.
single chip.
It uses an external bus to interface to RAM,
It uses an internal controlling bus.
ROM, and other peripherals.
Microprocessor-based systems can run at a Microcontroller based systems run up to
very high speed because of the technology 200MHz or more depending on the
involved. architecture.
it’s used for general purpose applications It’s used for application-specific
that allow you to handle loads of data. systems.
It’s complex and expensive, with a large It’s simple and inexpensive with less
number of instructions to process. number of instructions to process.
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Design process

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 …

Requirement
• Before we design a system, we must know what we are
designing.
• Description of what the user wants and expected to get
• May be developed in several ways
• Talking directly to customers
• Talking to marketing representatives
• Providing prototype to users for comment

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 …

specification
• It serves as the contract between the customer and the
architects.
• The specification must be carefully written so that it
accurately reflects the customers requirements and does so in
a way that can be clearly followed during design.
• The specification should be understandable enough so that
someone can verify that it meets system requirements and
overall expectations of the customer.

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 …

Architecture design
• Architecture is the plan for the overall structure of the
system that will be used later to design the components
that make up the architecture.
• Architecture design must give an idea about
• What major components need for satisfying the specification?
• What hardware components need? Like CPUs, etc.
• What Software components need?
• Must take into account functional and non-functional
specifications.

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 …

Components
• The component design effort builds those components to
satisfy architecture and specification.
• The components will in general include both hardware and
software modules.
System integration
• System integration is Putting together the components.
• Many bugs/faults appear only at this stage.
• Bugs are typically found during system integration, and good
planning can help us find the bugs quickly.

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 Design Goals
• Performance.
• Overall speed, deadlines.
• Functionality and user interface.
• Manufacturing cost.
• Power consumption.
• Other requirements (physical size, etc.)

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 Design approaches

• Top- Down design:

– Start from most abstract description
– Work to most detailed
• Bottom-Up design:
– Work from small components to big system
• Real design uses both techniques

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 Stepwise refinement

• At each level of abstraction, we must:

– analyze the design to determine characteristics of the
current state of the design;
– refine the design to add detail.

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 Challenges in embedded system design
• How much hardware do we need?
– What is word size of cpu? Size of memory?
– Depends on what specific task trying to handle
• How do we meet our deadlines?
– Faster hardware or cleverer software?
• How do we minimize power?
– Turn off unnecessary logic? Reduce memory access?

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Computer organization concepts and memory

CPU

System
interconnection

I/O Memory

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 Structure of computer system

INPUT OUTPUT
CPU UNIT UNIT

Control
unit

ALU
System Bus

Registers
RAM ROM

MEMORY

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 Components of a basic computer system
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Executes information stored in memory.
• I/O (Input/output) devices
• Provide a means of communicating with CPU.
• Memory
• It is responsible for holding programs and information
essential to operation of the computer.

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 Memory
➢ For the CPU to process information, the data must be stored
in RAM or ROM, which are referred to as primary memory.
➢ RAM (Random Access Memory)
• It is read/write memory.
• It is volatile memory, i.e. retains the contents as long as
electricity is supplied.
➢ ROM (Read Only Memory)
• It is read only memory.
• It is non-volatile memory, i.e. the contents are retained
even after electricity is switched.

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 ROM

There are different types of read-only memory: PROM,

EPROM, EEPROM.
• PROM(Programmable ROM) refers to the kind of ROM
that the user can burn information into it.
• PROM is a user-programmable memory.
• For every bit of the PROM, there exists a fuse.
• PROM is also referred to as OTP (one-time
programmable).
• If the information burned into PROM is wrong, that
PROM must be discarded since its internal fuses are
blown permanently.

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 ROM …

• EPROM(Erasable Programmable ROM) was invented to

allow making changes in the contents of PROM after it is
burned
• In EPROM, one can program the memory chip and erase
it thousands of times.
• Usually ultraviolet(UV) radiation is used to erase its
contents.
• Requires an external erasure and programming device.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)
• Its method of erasure is electrical and fast.
• One can select which byte to be erased.
• EEPROM does not require an external erasure and
programming device.

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 RAM

• RAMs can be static or dynamic.

• Static RAM:
• Storage cells are made of flip-flops and therefore do not
require refreshing in order to keep their data.
• The problem with the use of flip-flops for storage cells is
that each cell require at least 6 transistors to build, and the
cell holds only 1 bit of data.
• Dynamic RAM:
• uses a capacitor to store each bit.
• cuts down the number of transistors needed to build the
cell.
• requires constant refreshing due to leakage.

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 System Bus
• A bus is a set of parallel lines used to connect two or more
digital components of a computing system.
• The system bus connects the CPU with the memory and other
peripherals.
• The system bus combines the functions of the three main
buses:
• Data bus
• Address bus
• Control bus.
• Data bus carries the information being transmitted/received.
• Address bus tells where the information is being transferred
to/from.
• Control bus carries the control, timing and coordination
signals to manage the various functions across the system.

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