MODULE 2

Simple soil properties :Basic definitions, phase relations, index properties of soil-soil grain
and soil aggregate properties of coarse and fine grained soils
Engineering & Index properties
• Engineering properties - permeability, compressibility, shear strength

• Determination of engineering properties - elaborate and time consuming

• Index properties - Indicative of engineering properties

• Gives a rough idea to geotechnical engineer

• Coarse grained - particle size and relative density

• Fine grained - Atterberg limits and consistency

Index properties
• Index properties are classified into:

• Properties of individual particles (soil grain properties)

• Dependant on the individual grains of soil

• Independent of manner of soil formation

• Can be determined from a remoulded, disturbed sample

• Example-mineralogical composition, specific gravity of solids, particle size distribution, grain shape

• Properties of soil mass (aggregate properties)

• Properties of soil mass as a whole

• Depend on the mode of soil formation, soil history and soil structure

• Should be determined from undisturbed samples/ in-situ tests

• Example- relative density

Grain shape
• Bulky grains - dimensions are more or less the same

• formed by mechanical breakdown of parent rocks

• during transportation by wind or water, sharp edges

may get worn out and grains may become rounded

• particles with high angularity resists displacement

and possess high shearing strength

• Flaky grains - plate shaped-thickness is very small

when compared to other two lateral dimensions

• Needle shaped grains - one dimension is fully

developed and larger than the other two - eg. kaolinite
Grain size analysis
• Separation of soils into different fractions based on particle size

• It expresses quantitatively the proportions by mass of various sizes of particles present in soil.

• Shown graphically on a particle size distribution curve

• Sieve analysis- for coarse-grained soils (particle size > 75 microns)

• Sedimentation analysis (finer than 75 microns)

Sieve analysis
• Soil is sieved through a set of brass sieves

• Sieves are designated by their opening size/mesh width (IS: 468-1962)

• Coarse grained soils are further divided into gravel fraction and sand
fraction

• Gravel = size>4.75mm, sand = size between 4.75mm and 75 microns

• Sieve sizes required for gravel fraction - 80, 40, 20, 10 and 4.75 mm

• For sand fraction - 2.36, 1.18, 0.6, 0.425, 0.212, 0.150, and 0.075 mm

• Sieve with largest aperture is placed on top of the stack

• Quantity of sample is selected and sieved through the corresponding set of Sl. Maximum particle size Quantity
sieves (a sieve shaker can be used) with 10 minutes of shaking No. (mm) (kg)
1 80 60
• Mass of soil retained on each sieve is noted and checked against the
2 20 6.5
original mass 3 4.75 0.5
Sieve analysis
Total weight of soil=900 g

Sieve Weight % weight Cumulative % % finer, N

opening(mm) retained (g) retained wt. retained
20 35
10 40
4.75 80
2.36 150
1.18 150
0.600 140
0.425 115
0.212 55
0.150 35
0.075 25
Pan 75
Sieve analysis (contd.)
Sieve Weight % weight Cumulative % % finer, N
opening(mm) retained (g) retained wt. retained
20 35 3.89 3.89 100-3.89=96.11
10 40 4.44 3.89+4.44=8.33 91.67
4.75 80 8.88 17.21 82.79
2.36 150 16.67 33.88 66.12
1.18 150 16.67 50.55 49.45
0.600 140 15.56 66.11 33.89
0.425 115 12.78 78.89 21.11
0.212 55 6.11 85 15
0.150 35 3.89 88.89 11.11
0.075 25 2.78 91.67 8.33
Pan 75 8.33 100 0
Grain size distribution curve
100
90
80
70
Percentage finer, %

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve opening, mm D10 = 0.15 mm (effective size)
D30 = 0.55 mm
D60 = 1.8 mm
Particle size distribution curve
• Gradation curve

• Percentage finer, N is shown on y-axis (natural scale) and particle size on x-axis (log scale)

• Soils of equal uniformity exhibit same shape, for the curve, irrespective of actual particle size

• For larger particle size ranges, for better representation, a log scale is required

• Distribution of particles of different sizes is called grading

• Can be determined from particle size distribution curves

Particle size distribution
curve (contd.)
• Curve with a hump (curve A)=some of
intermediate particles are missing - gap-
graded/ skip-graded soils

• Flat S-curve (curve B)=particles of

different sizes in different proportion -
well-graded / uniformily graded soil

• Steep curve (curve C)=particles of

almost same size - uniform soils

• Curve situated higher up and to the left-

relatively fine grained

• Curve situated to right-coarse grained

Particle size distribution curve (contd.)
• Uniformity coefficient, Cu

• Indicates range of particle sizes

• Cu>6=well-graded, Cu<2 = uniform soils

"!"
#! =
"#"
• Coefficient of curvature, Cc

• Indicates the general shape of particle size distribution curve

• If Cc lies between 1 and 3 = well-graded

""# !
#! =
"$# &"%#
Wet sieve analysis
• If soil contains more than 5% of fine particles, wet sieving is required

• Sample is first washed over 75μ sieve to remove fine particles sticking on to sand particles

• Wet sand retained on 75μ sieve is oven dried and dry sieve analysis is performed

• Finer fraction is used for hydrometer/pipette analysis

Stokes law
• Particle size distribution of soils finer than 75 microns is determined by sedimentation analysis

• This is based on Stokes law, which governs the terminal velocity of a small sphere settling in a fluid of infinite
extent

• When a small sphere settles in an infinite fluid column, its velocity first increases under the action of gravity,
but due to drag force, the velocity is retarded

• After an initial adjustment period, steady state is attained and velocity becomes constant- terminal velocity

"! = !!" #$
Preparation of suspension
• 50 g of oven dried soil

• 33g of sodium hexametaphosphate, 7 g of sodium carbonate added to distilled water to

make 1 L of solution

• Dispersing solution added to soil

• After adding distilled water, the suspension is stirred in a mechanical stirrer for 15 min

• Suspension is then washed through a 75 micron sieve using water jet

• Portion passing through sieve is used for sedimentation analysis

• Specimen is washed into a 1000 ml jar and enough water is added to make 1000 ml of
suspension
Pipette method
• 500 ml soil suspension is required

• Quantities required for 1000ml suspension are halved

• Pipette is calibrated by measuring the mass of water

pipetted out (= volume of pipette)

• Pipette is gradually lowered into suspension

• Samples are taken from a depth of 100mm from surface

• First sample is taken after 2 mins. of start of sedimentation

• More samples are taken after 4, 8, 15 and 30 mins. and 1,2, 4, 8 and 24 hrs.

• Samples are oven dried and mass of solids is determined

!"#! # ! #!
$= $= %!""
% ( & # $) " "D #"

He=usually 100 mm

N=percentage finer

mD=mass of particles /ml of suspension (y/10)

ms=mass of particles/ml of suspension at beginning of sedimentation (x/500)

Hydrometer Analysis
Hydrometer analysis
• Used for determining specific gravity of liquids

• Since the specific gravity of soil suspension depends on particle size, a

hydrometer can be used

• Hydrometer with long stem (neck),stem is marked from top to bottom

(0.995-1.030)

• When sedimentation starts, specific gravity is uniform at all depths; during

sedimentation, larger particles settle deeper than smaller ones

• Lower layers of suspension have greater specific gravity than upper layers

• Hydrometer measures specific gravity of suspension at a point indicated

by centre of immersed volume

• If volume of stem is neglected, centre of immersed volume=centre of bulb

• Hydrometer gives specific gravity of suspension at centre of bulb

Calibration of hydrometer
• To determine the depth at which specific
gravity is measured

• Volume of hydrometer, VH is determined by

immersing it in a graduated cylinder partly filled
with water and noting the volume due to rise in
water level

• Effective depth at which specific gravity is

measured by hydrometer = depth of any layer
A-A from free surface B-B

• As hydrometer is inserted, A-A rises to A’-A’

and B-B rises to B’-B’
Calibration of hydrometer (contd.)
• Assuming that rise from A-A to A’-A’ at centre of
bulb=half of total rise due to volume of
hydrometer (volume of hydrometer below
centre of bulb=approx. one half of the total
volume)

! A " #! #!
!" = $ ! + % # +
& ! ' % !%

H = depth from free surface B’-B’ to lowest mark

on stem
h = height of bulb
VH = volume of hydrometer
A = c/s area of jar
Calibration chart
• Markings on hydrometer give specific gravity of
suspension at centre of bulb
• Hydrometer reading, Rh=(reading on stem -
1)x1000
• Readings on right side directly give Rh
• Since He depends on Rh, a graph is drawn
between He and Rh
• To determine He, an accurate scale is used to
measure the height h and depth H to various
graduations

! A " #! #!
!" = $ ! + % # +
& ! ' % !%
Test procedure
 Test procedure
• 1000 ml of suspension is prepared and washed into a 1000ml jar

• A comparison cylinder that contains clear water filled upto 1000 ml is

placed beside the suspension

• Suspension is mixed thoroughly by placing palm on the end and

inverting the jar a few times

• Jar is placed on table, stop watch is started

• Hydrometer is inserted and first reading is taken after ½ min. Upto 2

min, hydrometer is kept immersed in the soil suspension. (0.5,1,2
min)

• For taking further readings (4,8,15 and 30 mins., 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24

hrs.), hydrometer is inserted into the suspension (about 20 sec before
taking reading), reading is observed and floated in the comparison
cylinder

• After taking the readings, hydrometer is taken out and floated in the
comparison cylinder
• Particle size D is determined, taking He from calibration curve for hydrometer reading Rh

!"#! # ! ! " " # $

$= % =# $ ! ! &"##
% ( & # $) " "D & " % " ' ' ! "###
D = diameter of the particle, in cm
η = viscosity of water in poise
g = 981 cm/s2
Ms = mass of solids in a volume V of 1000ml (=50 g)
Meniscus correction (Cm)

• Since suspension is opaque, observations are taken at

the top of meniscus

• Cm is determined from the readings at the top and bottom

of meniscus in the comparison cylinder

• As the marking increases downward, correction is

positive

#! = #! ! + $"
• Rh=corrected reading
Temperature correction (Ct)

• Generally calibrated at 27oC

• If temperature is different, a correction is applied

• If temp >27oC, correction is positive and vice-versa

Dispersion agent correction (Cd)
• Adding dispersing agent causes increase in specific gravity

• Correction is always negative

• Can be obtained by noting hydrometer reading in clear water and again in same water after adding
dispersing agent

% = %! ! + C" ± C# ! C$
Composite correction (C)
• Instead of finding corrections separately, one composite correction is determined

• Found directly from readings taken in comparison cylinder, which has distilled water and dispersing agent in
the same concentration as that used for the test, at the same temperature

• Found at the start of test and at every 30 mins. interval

Limitations

• Particles are not truly spherical (D=?)

• Average value of G is used

• Stokes law is applicable when liquid is infinite

• Interference from other spheres during settling

• Sedimentation analysis cannot be used for particles>0.2mm due to turbulent conditions

• Cannot be used for particles<0.2 microns due to Brownian movement

• Cannot be used for chalky soils

• A dry sample of mass 50g is mixed with distilled water to prepare a suspension of 1000ml for hydrometer
analysis. The reading of the hydrometer taken after 5 minutes was 25 and the depth of the centre of the
bulb below the water surface when the hydrometer was in the jar was 150mm. The volume of the
hydrometer was 62ml and the area of cross section of the jar was 55 cm2. Assuming G=2.68 and η=9.81
millipoise, determine the co-ordinates of the point corresponding to the above observations.

!"#! # ! ! " " # $

$= % =# $ ! ! &"##
% ( & # $) " "D & " % " ' ' ! "###
Relative density
• Engineering properties of a mass of cohesionless soil depend to a large extent on its relative density (Dr), or
density index (ID)

" !" emax = maximum void ratio of soil in loosest condition

#! = !"# $&''
"!"# ! "!$% emin = minimum void ratio of soil in densest condition
e = void ratio in natural state

• Relative density of a soil gives a more clear idea of denseness than void ratio

• Two types of sands having same void ratio may have entirely different state of denseness and engineering
properties

• Two sands having same relative density usually behave in identical manner

• It indicates how it would behave under loads - dense deposits can take heavy loads with little settlements

Denseness Very loose Loose Medium dense Dense Very dense

Dr(%) <15 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100
 ATTERBERG LIMITS
(CONSISTENCY LIMITS)
Atterberg limits
• Plasticity of soil is the ability to undergo deformation without cracking/fracturing

• Due to the presence of clay minerals - adsorption of water

• Soil does not become plastic when mixed with a non-polarizing liquid like kerosene/paraffin oil

• Consistency of a fine-grained soil is the physical state in which it exists

• Soil can exist in four states - liquid, plastic, semi-solid or solid state

• Water contents at which soil changes from one state to another is called consistency limit /Atterberg limits

• Soils with same consistency limits behave in a similar manner

• Soil with a very high water content is in a liquid state.

• It offers no shear resistance and flows like liquids.

• It offers no resistance to shear deformation, and hence shear strength=0

• As water content is reduced, soil becomes stiffer and starts developing

resistance to shear deformation

• At a particular water content, soil becomes plastic

• w/c at which soil changes from liquid to plastic state is called liquid limit
(wl)

• Soil in plastic state can be moulded into various shapes

• As w/c is reduced, plasticity decreases

• Ultimately soil passes from plastic to semi-solid state

• It cracks when moulded

• w/c at which soil becomes semi-solid is called plastic limit(wp)

• Plasticity index=wl-wp
• In the semi-solid state, volume of soil decreases with decrease in w/c till a stage is reached when further reduction of
w/c doesn’t cause any reduction in volume of soil

• Soil reaches a solid state

• w/c at which soil changes from semi-solid to solid state = shrinkage limit (ws)

• Below shrinkage limit, soil doesn’t remain saturated; air enters voids-sample begins to dry up at surface-colour changes

• But capillary tension develops and volume of soil doesn’t change

• Shrinkage limit is the water content at which soil stops shrinking further and attains a constant volume

• Lowest w/c at which soil is fully saturated

Fully saturated Shrinkage limit Overdried soil

Liquid limit
• At LL, clay is practically a liquid, but posses a small shear strength-smallest that can
be measured in the lab

• LL depends on clay minerals present-stronger the surface charge and thinner the
particle, greater is the amount of adsorbed water and higher will be liquid limit

• Determined in lab by Casagrande’s apparatus or cone penetration method

• Brass dish, dropping through a height of 1 cm on a hard base when operated by

handle

• Device is operated by turning the handle - raises the cup and lets it drop on rubber
base

• 120g of air-dried soil passing 425 μ sieve is mixed with distilled water to form a paste

• A portion is placed in the cup and surface is leveled with a spatula to a maximum
depth of 1cm

• Groove is cut through the sample –Casagrande tool and ASTM tool

• Casagrande tool- normal fine-grained soils, ASTM-sandy, fine grained soils

• Handle is turned @ 2 revolutions per second until two parts of
soil sample come into contact at the bottom of groove along a
distance of 12 mm

• Groove should close by flow of soil and not by slippage

between soil and cup

• When groove closes by flow, it indicates failure of slopes

formed on two sides of groove

• Soil is again mixed and test repeated until consecutive tests

give same no. of blows

• About 15 g of soil near closed groove is taken for w/c

determination

• LL is the w/c at which soil is sufficiently fluid to flow when the

device is given 25 blows

• Shear strength of soil at LL=2.7 kPa

 Flow curve
• Flow index=slope of flow curve

!$ "! ! "" %
#! =
&'("# $ $ ! ) $" %
• Soil 2 with greater slope of flow index possesses a
lower shear strength compared to soil 1 with flatter
slope

• To decrease the w/c by same amount, soil with a

steeper slope takes a smaller no. of blows, hence it
has lower shear strength
Plastic limit
• w/c at which soil stops behaving like a plastic material

• It begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of 3 mm diameter

• At this w/c, soil looses its plasticity an passes to a semi-solid state

• Soil sieved through 425 microns sieve, thoroughly mixed with distilled water, till it becomes plastic and can be easily moulded
with fingers

• About 10 g soil is taken in a hand and a ball is formed and then rolled on a glass plate to form a thread of uniform diameter

• Rate of rolling is kept at 80-90 strokes/min

• If dia. of thread is smaller than 3 mm without crack formation, it shows w/c is more than PL

• Soil is kneaded further, resulting in a reduction of w/c

• Soil is rerolled, procedure is repeated till thread crumbles

• w/c at which soil can be rolled into a thread of approx. 3mm dia. without crumbling is called PL

• Shear strength at PL is about 100 times that at LL

Shrinkage limit
• Smallest w/c at which soil is saturated

• Minimum w/c at which a reduction of w/c will not cause a decrease in volume of soil mass

Fully saturated Shrinkage limit Overdried soil

• 50g of soil passing through 425 microns is mixed with distilled water to
form a paste

• w/c is kept greater than LL

• Circular shrinkage dish, dia. 30-40mm and ht. of 15 mm-filled with

mercury

• Excess mercury is removed by pressing a plain glass plate firmly over

top of shrinkage dish

• Capacity of shrinkage dish = mass of mercury/specific gravity of

mercury (13.6)

• Mass of empty shrinkage dish is obtained

• Soil sample is placed in shrinkage dish, about 1/3 of its capacity

• Dish is tapped on a firm surface to remove entrapped air

• More soil is added and tapping is continued till dish is completely filled
with soil

• Mass of soil=M1, volume of soil=capacity of dish (V1)

• Soil in shrinkage dish is allowed to dry in air until it turns light in colour
and dried in oven

• Mass of shrinkage dish with dry soil = Ms

• To determine volume of dry pat, it is immersed in a glass cup filled with

mercury

• Pat is pressed by a glass plate with 3 prongs firmly over the top of cup
filled with mercury

• Mercury displaced by soil pat is weighed to get volume of mercury and "! =
( #! " # ! ) " #$! " $" $ !"
hence, volume of dry pat, Vd (=V2)
#!
Shrinkage parameters
• Shrinkage index, Is = wp-ws

• Shrinkage ratio (SR) = ratio of a given volume change expressed as a % of dry volume, to the
corresponding change in w/c

#"! ! "" $ % "!

#$ = %!&&
&! ! &"

• Volumetric shrinkage (VS) = change in volume expressed as a % of dry volume, when w/c is reduced from
a given value of shrinkage limit

! " #" "

"# = $ ! ! % $!""
& "! '
• Linear shrinkage (LS) = change in length/ initial length when w/c is reduced to shrinkage limit
Indices
• Plasticity index –range of w/c over which soil remains in plastic state

# ! = $" ! $ !
• Liquidity index (water-plasticity ratio) - nearness of soil w/c to LL

# ! #!
$" = %!""
$!
• Consistency index (relative consistency) - indicates nearness of soil w/c to PL

$! ! $
%" = &!""
%#
Toughness index
• Ratio of plasticity index and flow index

• Measure of shear strength of soil at plastic limit

• It=Ip/If

• For most soils, It lies between 0 and 3

Sensitivity
• When a soil structure is disturbed, its engineering properties change considerably

• Sensitivity of a soil indicates weakening of soil due to remoulding

• Defined as the ratio of undisturbed strength to remoulded strength at same water content

( $! )! Sensitivity Soil Type

%" =
( $! )# <1
1-2
Insensitive
Little Sensitive
2-4 Moderately Sensitive
4-8 Sensitive
8-16 Extra Sensitive
>16 Quick
Thixotropy
• Change that occurs by touch; Loss of strength of soil due to remoulding

• Due to change in soil structure and disturbance caused to water molecules in adsorbed layer

• If a remoulded soil is allowed to stand without loss of water, it may regain some of its lost strength-
thixotropy

• Due to gradual reorientation of molecules of water in adsorbed water layer and due to re-establishment of
chemical equilibrium
Activity of soils
• Ratio of plasticity index and percentage of clay fraction (finer than 2 microns)

• A=Ip/F

• Activity is a measure of water holding capacity of soils

Activity Soil type

<0.75 Inactive
0.75 to 1.25 Normal
>1.25 Active
1. A soil has a dry density of 1.816 g/ml in the natural condition. When 410 g of the soil was poured in a vessel in a very loose
state, its volume was 290 ml. The same soil when vibrated and compacted was found to have a volume of 215 ml. Determine
the relative density.
2. In order to find the relative density of a sand, a mould of volume 1000 ml was used. When the sand was dynamically
compacted in the mould, its mass was 2.1 kg, whereas when the sand was poured in loosely, its mass was 1.635 kg. If the in-
situ density of the soil was 1.50 Mg/m3, calculate the relative density, G=2.70. Assume that the sand is saturated.
3. A soil has a liquid limit of 25% and a flow index of 12.5%. If the plastic limit is 15%, determine the plasticity index and the
toughness index. If the water content of the soil in its natural condition in the field is 20%, find the liquidity index and the
relative consistency.
4.A sample of clay has the liquid limit and the shrinkage limit of 60% and 25% respectively. If the sample has a volume of 10 ml
at the liquid limit and a volume of 6.40 ml at the shrinkage limit, determine the specific gravity of solids.
5. In an experiment for the determination of the shrinkage limit, the following observations were taken:
(a) Volume of saturated soil = 9.75 ml
(b) Mass of saturated soil = 16.5 g
(c) Volume of dry soil after shrinkage = 5.4 ml
(d) Mass of dry soil after shrinkage = 10.9 g
Compute the shrinkage limit and the specific gravity of solids
6. A soil has liquid limit and plastic limit of 47% and 33% respectively. If the volumetric shrinkages at the liquid limit and
plastic limit are 44% and 29%, determine the shrinkage limit.