A map is a generalised, reduced depiction of reality on a flat piece of paper from a curved earth’s surface.

A map is
said to be generalised because not everything can be shown in any one map. That is why there are different types of
maps. The following are just few examples. Topographic maps; orthophoto maps; settlement maps; geological maps;
political maps; etc. The types of maps that we will focus on are the topographic and orthophoto maps. A map is said
to be reduced because everything that appears on it has been reduced to a certain scale. We can say that a map
scale is a degree of reduction used on a map. Think of the fact that a map of the African continent can be drawn on
an A4 size paper. We obviously know that Africa is far much bigger than an A4 size paper. It’s only that what appears
on that paper has been reduced. On that same paper, a map of, say, Kimberly can be drawn. The main difference
between these maps would be the scale that is used. There are different types of map scales. These map scale
appear in different formats. A map scale can have one of three different formats: number scales, word scales or line
scales. The number scales have two formats, the ratio or the representative fraction. An example of a ratio scale is:
1: 50 000. This scale can be given as a representative fraction like: 1⁄50000
As a word statement, it can be given as, ‘one unit on a map represents fifty thousand units on the ground’. A line
scale is a straight line marked off in equal units of measurement that show the equivalent distance in reality. This line
uses centimetres and kilometres and is found at the bottom of the map. The topographic maps we will be studying
use the scale 1: 50 000, and the orthophoto maps use the scale 1: 10 000. There is a large scale map and a small
scale map. The difference between the two is that a large scale map shows a small area in great detail but a small
scale map shows a large area with little detail. Between the scales 1: 50 000 and 1: 10 000, the scale 1: 50 000 is a
small scale and the scale 1: 10 000 is a large scale. Map scales are used to calculate, amongst other things,
distances on a map, area, and slope steepness (gradient).
When calculating distances, map scale is used. The topographic map scale 1: 50 000 means that one unit (be it a
millimetre or a centimetre) on the map represents fifty thousand units on the actual ground. As has been mentioned
above, whatever appears on a map drawn to this scale has been reduced by fifty thousand. This means that to get
the actual ground distance of any part in the map, one should multiply that ‘unit’ by fifty thousand. This requires
knowledge of how to convert kilometres into metres, metres into centimetres, and centimetres into millimetres. When
we want to calculate distances between points. We have to use a ruler, and ensure that we measure from the ‘0’, not
from the edge of the ruler. We then multiply the unit we get by 50 000. If the unit was in centimetres, the answer will
be 50 000cm. if the unit was in millimetres, the answer will be 50 000mm. Let’s remind ourselves about this:
 There are 10 millimetres in a centimetre
 There are100 centimetres in a metre
 There are 1000 metres in a kilometre
Assuming that we measured a distance of 2 centimetres on a 1: 50 000 map, we would then do this: 2cm x 50 000 =
100 000cm
 100 000cm ÷ 100 = 1000m
 1000m ÷ 1000 = 1km
A distance of 2 cm on a 1: 50 000 topographic map is actually 1km on the ground.
Assuming that we measured a distance of 4 centimetres on a 1: 50 000 map, we would then do this: 4cm x 50 000 =
200 000cm
200 000cm ÷ 100 = 2000m
2000m ÷ 1000 = 2km
A distance of 4 cm on a 1: 50 000 topographic map is actually 2km on the ground.
On the basis of this, it is easy to understand why some people simply divide the unit they get when measuring on a
map by two to get the ground distance.

In the block diagram above, the distance between X and Y is 4 centimetres, the distance between Y and Z is 5
centimetres, and the distance between X and Z is 3 centimetres. Would you be able to give the ground distance in
kilometres between X and Y? Reme÷mber that we also assume that the scale is 1: 50 000. I would simply divide 4 by
2, and the answer would be in kilometres. If the answer was required in metres, I would then multiply by 1000.
A map scale is also used when calculating an area. There is a formula for calculating an area. We should keep in
mind that you cannot be able to calculate an area if you cannot calculate a distance! The formula is: L x B (length
multiply by breadth). The length of the block diagram above is 9 centimetres, and its breadth is 4 centimetres. If we
were to calculate its area, we would first find out the ground distances (in metres r in kilometres). Then we would
have to multiply the length and the breadth. For example:

Contours or contour lines are the brownish lines drawn on a map joining all places of equal height above sea level.
Remember that the word altitude is used to refer to height above sea level. On topographic maps, contours are
drawn at 20 metres apart from each other. This is why we say that a topographic map has a 20 metre contour
interval. The distance between two consecutive contour lines is called a contour interval. There are index contours.
These are 100 metres apart, and are the main contour lines. On orthophoto maps contour lines are 10 metres apart.
This means that on the orthophoto maps, the contour interval is 10 metres. An understanding of contours and the
patterns they form is necessary to read and analyse the physical environment on a topographic map or an othorphoto
map. Let us briefly remind ourselves about general characteristics of contour lines.
 Contour lines never end abruptly
 Contour lines that are spaced apart indicate a gentle slope
 Contour lines spaced close together indicate a steep slope
 Contour line bending in the direction of height increase indicate a valley. If there is a river in that valley, then
there is a river valley
 Contour lines bending in the direction of height decrease indicate a spur
 Contour lines never ‘touch’ each other. They may only appear to. In that case, it is a cliff. If there is water
flowing down the cliff, then there is a waterfall.
 A land is flat where there are no contour lines.
Used together with contours, in showing altitudes on maps, are trigonometric beacons, spot height and bench marks.
A cross-section is a side view of a landscape between two points. This side view is also called a profile of the
landscape. To draw a cross-section between two points on a map, you must first draw a line joining them. Then lay a
strip of paper with a straight edge along this line and on it mark off the positions of the two places and all the contour
lines crossed by the strip paper. Then transfer the strip of paper to a piece of graph paper, or just an ordinary paper.
Mark off the length of the cross-section on it, and at both ends of this line draw vertical lines. Mark off a vertical scale
embracing all the heights encountered along the cross-section. Then mark off with dots all the heights which appear
on the strip of paper. Once all the heights have been marked onto the cross-section, join the dots by freehand to give
the cross-section. You should always be careful of the following:
o Keep on checking the map itself to remind you of any river valleys that might be there along the
cross-section.
o When two or more dots lie at one altitude with no others intervening, do not join them with a
straight line but work out whether the land between the dots rises above that altitude or falls
beneath it.