Chapter 1

Evolution of Power System

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1.1 Classification of High Voltages
For power system history, please refer to books and online resources.
HVAC and HVDC
Classification of voltage levels is different for US and British standard.
Nominal Line Voltage
Class
US Standard British Standard
Low Voltage 120/240 V (1-φ), 208 V, 240 V, 480 V, 600 V 110/220 V (1-φ)

Medium Voltage 2.4 kV, 4.16 kV, 4.8 kV, 6.9 kV, 12.47 kV, 440 V, 660 V
13.2 kV, 13.8 kV, 23.0 kV, 24.94 kV, 34.5 kV,
46.0 kV, 69.0 kV
High Voltage 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV, 230 kV 2.2 kV, 3.3 kV, 4.4 kV. 6.6 kV, 11 kV,
22 kV, 33 kV, 44 kV, 66 kV, 110 kV,
132 kV, 220 kV
Extra High Voltage 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV 330 kV, 400 kV

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 The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has classified the voltages
as follows (IEC 60038). This classification system is fast gaining acceptance.

Low Voltage - up to 1000V

Medium Voltage - 1000V to 35kV
High Voltage - 35kV to 230 kV
Extra High Voltage - above 230 kV.

The term Ultra High Voltage is used to denote voltages from 800 kV.
In addition, the IEC defines a voltage band known as the Extra Low Voltage with
a AC voltage less than 70 V

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 Ultra high voltage transmission of 800 kV and 1,000 kV is already in practice. 1,200 and
1,500 kV lines are also under design.
 Highest operational transmission line voltage: 1,150 kV, the Ekibastuz-Kokeshetau
power transmission line in Kazakhstan (Source: Guiness)

 Longest O/H Tr. Line : 2,543 km (Belo Monte – Rio de Janeiro) in Brajil (Source:
Statista), its 800 kV HVDC line and transmits electricity from the 11.2GW Belo Monte
hydroelectric plant located in Para to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

 Longest span of O/H line: 5,376 m over Greenland made by Norway

 Longest subsea (undersea) power cable: 450 miles between UK and Norway
475-mile-long (765 km) subsea power line between UK and Denmark under construction
(Source: electrek)

 Tallest Tr. Line tower : 345 m in Wuxi, China (Source: CGTN)

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1.2 New Trends Emerging in Power system
New trends emerging in power sector are both from technological and policy side.
Technology
Transmission Sector:
 EHV/UHV AC and HVDC line
As the amount of power deliver required increases, the transmission line voltage level
goes high. Such lines are EHV/UHV AC lines. But HVAC as some problems:
 High corona loss
 High EM radiation and noise
 More ROW clearance
So HVDC lines are used for voltage levels 800 kV and above.

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 HVDC:
- Allows the power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission
systems. This improves economy and stability.
- Avoids the large amount of charging and discharging current over long
distances.
- No corona loss and audible noise, no radio interference
- Fewer conductors
- Good visual impact, aesthetic quality
A HVDC transmission line is considerably cheaper to build than the HVAC line
if the line length is great enough. As the converter stations are very expensive,
HVDC is not economical, however, for small distances.

Approx. Breakdown distances:

- 800 km for O/H lines
- 50 km for U/G cables
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COST: AC vs DC Transmission

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 HVDC power transmission is very controllable and can provide both dynamic
and static support for a power system.
 HVDC systems can damp out oscillations in the attached AC power systems and
associated generators.
 HVDC link allows the operators direct influence over reactive power and voltage
at each terminal of the link and control the real power contrary to the AC link,
where the real and reactive power flow are entirely dependent on the voltage and
phase angles at each end of the link.
Converter Station: where
HVDC connections are
made
Converter: Made of power
electronic components

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 HVDC back-to-back
We all know that High voltage AC is used to transmit the electrical power for reducing the
power transmission losses. In a transmission system different grids are interconnected but
some time it may happen that one or more grid or power system may not be in
synchronization with other grid or systems or there exists a weak link between different
power systems due to various factors. To overcome these things a HVDC back to back
system is used.
In a HVDC back-to-back configuration two independent neighboring systems with
different and incompatible electrical parameters (Frequency / Voltage Level / Short-Circuit
Power Level) are connected via a DC link. The basic principle of operation of an HVDC
linking system is based on the conversion of AC to DC and vice-versa by means of
converter valves.
HVDC link is much more beneficent than the frequency converter as frequency
matching of two or more asynchronous systems is very much difficult than conversion
and inversion ,this situation can be better understood by knowing that allowable variation in
frequency in power system is +/- 1 HZ otherwise it may result in system collapse.
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 Process involved in this is simple theoretically only but in practical it is very much
complex as it involves high voltages and power semiconductor devices. Power from
two or more neighboring system is first converted in DC with the help of power
rectifier system and summed up. After summing, the resulted power is again
converted in AC with the help of power inverter and supplied to different grids. Thus
a HVDC interconnection phase is involved in linking of different power systems to
obtain a stable power system with uniform parameters.
Advantage of HVDC back to back system are :
1.Power can be upgraded to desired frequency.
2.Two asynchronous systems can be joined successfully without loss of stability.
3.Stability of the system is increased as well as power flow can be maintained within
the optimal limits.
4.More active power can be added where the AC system already is at the limit of its
short-circuit capability
5.To stabilized weak AC links.
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 HVDC-Light
(Classical) HVDC is economical only for very long UHV lines. It uses mercury arc
valves, thyristor valves, capacitor commutated converters (CCC). etc.
Use of HVDC concept and technology for delivery of relatively small amount of
power is HVDC-Light.
 HVDC-Light has fewer components compared to HVDC and is compact and
small.
 It uses power electronic components like Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBTs), Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTOs), Integrated Gate Commutated
Thyristors (IGCTs)
- First HVDC-Light pilot transmission project for 3 MW ±10 kV in March, 1997 in
Sweden
- First HVDC-Light commercial transmission project for 50 MW, ±70 kV in 1999
(72 km long tr. line)
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 Gas Insulated Cables/Transmission Lines (GITL)
GITL consists of a central Aluminium conductor Benefits of GITL:
with a typical cross-section of up to 5,300 cm2. the – Low resistive losses (reduced
enclosure is formed by a sturdy aluminium tube, by factor 4)
which provides a solid mechanical and electro- – Low capacitive losses and less
technical containment for the system. charging current
 GITL is filled with an insulating gas mixture of – No external electromagnetic
mainly N2 and a smaller percentage of SF6. fields
 GITL are the best option where environmental – No cooling needed
or structural considerations rule out the use of – No danger of fire
O/H lines. – Short repair time
 GITL can be tunnel laid (open) or buried (U/G). – No aging
– Lower total life cycle costs.
 The power transmission capacity of GITL is
equivalent to O/H lines.
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Gas Insulated Line Cross-section
GIL Installation

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 Construction of a Typical GIL

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Generation Sector:
 Distributed Generation (DG): Wind, PV, Biomass, micro-turbines, etc.
DG is not still as efficient as the utility grid but it is cheaper as it avoids T&D costs and is
environment friendly.
 Grid Integrated DG – technical challenges
 Energy Storage Technologies: Efficient batteries, pumped storage systems, gravity
storage systems, thermal storage systems
Distribution Sector:
 Load Management, replacement by low power consuming efficient loads like LED
bulbs
 ToD metering
Policy Sector
 Restructuring of power sector – from vertically bundled monopoly to unbundling into
different companies
 Open and competitive power market
 Real time pricing
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 1.5 High Voltage Cables
High Voltage Cables are used when underground transmission is required. These
cables are laid in ducts or may be buried in the ground. Unlike in overhead lines,
air does not form part of the insulation, and the conductor must be completely
insulated. Thus cables are much more costly than overhead lines. Also, unlike for
overhead lines where tappings can easily given, cables must be connected through
cable boxes which provide the necessary insulation for the joint.

Cables have a much lower inductance than overhead lines due to the lower spacing
between conductor and earth, but have a correspondingly higher capacitance, and
hence a much higher charging current. High voltage cables are generally single
cored, and hence have their separate insulation and mechanical protection by
sheaths. In the older paper insulated cables, the sheath was of extruded lead.

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 The presence of the sheath introduces certain difficulties as currents are induced
in the sheath as well. This is due to fact that the sheaths of the conductors cross
the magnetic fields set up by the conductor currents. At all points along the
cable, the magnetic field is not the same, Hence different voltages are induced
at different points on the sheath. This causes eddy currents to flow in the
sheaths. These eddy currents depend mainly on:

(a) the frequency of operation,

(b) the distance between cables,
(c) the mean radius of the sheath, and
(d) the resistivity of the sheath material.

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 Cable Constructions
22

 A cable consists of three main components:-

• Conductor
• Insulation
• Sheath

External protection is provided by the sheath against

mechanical damage, chemical reaction, moisture an so on.

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 Cable Constructions
23

• Insulation
XLPE
• Is a material that reduces or prevents the
transmission of electricity
• Each conductor is covered by insulation
• Insulation is phase to ground and phase to phase

PAPER

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 • Sheath
24

• Cable protective covering

• Metallic or nonmetallic protective
covering over the conductor /
insulation / shield
• External protection is provided by the
sheath against mechanical damage,
chemical reaction, moisture an so on.

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 Types of Underground Cables
•The
25
identification of the cable are based on the several items :
• Insulation
• Voltage System
• Cable Sizing And Core
• Technical Specification Characteristics Of The Cable

•Usually the operating voltage decides the types of insulation and cable
placed in various categories depending upon the voltage for which they are
designed.
•Low Voltage Cable (LV)  11kV
•High Voltage Cable (HV)  11 kV
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 High Voltage Cable Categories
26

•Paper Insulation
•3 core belted 11kV PILC (paper insulated lead
covered) cable
•Single core screened 11 kV PILC cable
•Polymer Insulation
•3 core XLPE (cross linked polyethylene) 11 kV cable
•Single core XLPE 11 kV cable

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 High Voltage Cable Categories
27

• A = Conductor (Aluminum)
• B = Strand Screen
(carbon black paper )
• C = Insulation (Paper)
• D = Insulation Screen
(carbon black paper)
• E = Sheath (copper lead)
• F = Jacket
Example of Single core
screened 11 kV PILC cable
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 High Voltage Cable Categories
28

• A = Conductor (Aluminum)
• B = Strand Screen
(extruded semiconducting)
• C = Insulation (XLPE)
• D = Insulation Screen
(extruded semiconducting)
• E = Shield (copper tape)
• F = Jacket
Example of Single core XLPE 11 kV cable
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 Why XLPE Cable ?
29

• Excellent Electrical & Physical Properties

• Capable Of Carrying Large Current At High
Temperature
• Normal ~ 90oc
• Emergency ~ 130oc
• Short Circuit Conditions ~250oc
• Easy To Install – XLPE Easier To Joint
• No Need For Metallic Sheath

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 Cable Accessories
• A cable network
30
must be capable of supplying electric
power without interruption.
• If a failure does occur, it is usually the junction points on Joint/Splice
the network that are at fault, rarely the cable.
• So it pays to choose cable accessories with care.

Cable accessories can be divided into 3 major categories:-

• Joint/Splice
Connector
• Termination Termination
• Connector

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 In the case of a 3-core cable, the 3-cores are individually
3- Core Belted Cable insulated with paper insulation. The filler spaces
between the core insulation is also filled up with
insulation, but depriving these of voids is much more
difficult. Belt insulation is used on top of all three core
insulations, and the lead sheath is extruded over this.
Over the lead sheath, there is generally bitumen to
prevent damage.

In buried cables, additional protection is necessary to

prevent damage. There are two types of armouring used
for these cables.

(i) Steel tape armouring - the steel tape is usually

wound in two layers with opposite directions of lay
(ii) Steel wire armouring - the steel wires are laid in
one or two layers.
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Hochstadter or "H" type Cable

In this type of cable, there is no belt insulation. The screening of individual cores is
generally thin and flexible so that there is not much power dissipation in them. All the
individual screens are earthed so that the potential at these sheaths are all zero and thus
the stress lines between the cores and screens would be now radial.

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 SL Type Cable

In this, each core is screened and then individually sheathed with lead or aluminium.
These do not have an overall lead sheath.

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 For the 3-core cable the circular cross-section is not the best shape for the conductors. Other
shapes which gives better space factors are the sector shaped conductors and the elliptical
shaped conductors.

Special Shaped Cables to Achieve Better Space Factor

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 In EHV cables, the void control is effected by pressurizing the oil-impregnated paper tape
insulation by (a) oil pressure, and (b) gas pressure.
In oil filled cables, the oil must be free to flow in order to transmit the pressure. The
maximum pressure of oil utilized is about 0.35 MN/m2 (3.5 atmospheres or 50 p.s.i.). Due to
the pressure of oil, the sheath tends to bulge out and therefore reinforcement of the sheathing
is necessary. A reservoir maintains the required pressure. The cable can now operate at a
maximum working stress of 150 kV/cm.

Oil Pressure HV Cables

1 psi = 6894.76 N/m
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 Gas Pressure HV Cables
In Gas pressure cables, a pressure of about 1.4 MN/m2 (14 atmospheres or 200 p.s.i.) is used.
Pipe line type gas pressure HV cable
is manufactured in the usual way and
the outside is made triangular, and
covered by a diaphragm lead sheath.
The pipe is filled with Nitrogen
subjected to a pressure of 200 p.s.i.
which is transmitted to the insulation
through the diaphragm.

The steel pipe is laid first, and the

cable is drawn in afterwards.
Nitrogen under pressure is then
introduced into the pipe. The
pressure is transmitted to the
membrane through the metal tape.
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 Internal Pressure Cables

In the internal pressure cables, the gas is in contact with the dielectric.

In these cables, spaces are left

between the convolutions so that
the gas is between them. The
presence of Nitrogen prevents the
formation of voids. The method of
manufacture is such that the gas
can move freely inside packets, but
cannot diffuse outside the
insulation.

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 Impregnated pressurized cable

In such gas pressure cables. provision is made for longitudinal gas flow, and the impregnating
compounds used are suitable for the higher dielectric stresses necessary for high voltage
cables. The cable has a mass impregnated paper dielectric and the impregnating oil is
maintained under a pressure of 200 p.s.i. by means of nitrogen. Special reinforcement is
provided to cater for the large hoop and longitudinal stresses set up.
The core is stranded and is covered with a metallised paper screen so as to obtain a
completely uniform stress. The gas channel is in one of the filler spaces.

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 1.4 Basic Introduction of FACTS Technology
Flexible AC transmission System (FACTS) refers to the system consisting of power
electronic devices along with power system devices utilized to enhance the
controllability and stability of the transmission system and increase the power
transfer capabilities.
FACTS is used to provide the controllability of the high voltage side of the network by
incorporating power electronic devices to introduce inductive or capacitive power in the
network. The invention of thyristor switch opened the door for the development of
FACTS controllers.
IEEE: FACTS is "a power electronic based system and other static equipment that
provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability".
In general, FACTS devices possess the following technological attributes:
i) Provide dynamic reactive power support
ii) Voltage control
iii) Improve system stability
iv) Control real and reactive power flow in network
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 History Of FACTS
 Flexible AC Transmission Systems Technology (FACTS) was first proposed
by the Dr. Narain G. Hingorani in 1988 of Electric Power Research Institute
( EPRI ), USA .
 The first FACTS installation was at the C. J. Slatt Substation near Arlington,
Oregon.
 This is a 500 kV, 3-phase 60 Hz substation, and was developed by EPRI, the
Bonneville Power Administration and General Electric Company.
Objectives of FACTS Controllers
The main objectives of FACTS controllers are the following:
1) Regulation of power flow in prescribed transmission routes.
2) Secure loading of transmission lines nearer to their thermal limits.
3) Prevention of cascading outages by contributing to emergency control.

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 Objectives of FACTS Controllers
The specific objectives of FACTS Controllers are given below:
1) Solve Power Transfer Limit & Stability Problems
1.1) Thermal Limit
1.2) Voltage Limit
1.3) Stability Limit
1.3.1) Transient Stability Limit
1.3.2) Voltage Stability Limit
2) Increase (control) power transfer capability of a line
3) Mitigate sub synchronous resonance (SSR)
4) Power quality improvement
5) Load compensation
6) Limit short circuit current
7) Increase the load ability of the system

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 Types Of FACTS Controllers
Based on their functionality as well as technical feature, FACTS Controllers are
classified as :-
1. FIRST GENERATION (Example: SVC and TCSC)
2. SECOND GENERATION (Example: STATCOM and SSSC)
3. THIRD GENERATION (Example: UPFC and IPFC)

Depending on their connection to the network, FACTS Controllers are

classified as :-
1) Series Controllers
2) Shunt Controller
3) Combined series-series Controllers
4) Combined series-shunt Controllers

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 1. Series Controllers
 It could be a variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor, or a power
electronic based variable source of main frequency, sub-synchronous and
harmonic frequencies to serve the desired need.
 Inject a voltage in series with the line .
 If the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, it only supplies or
consumes reactive power.
 Examples of the series controllers include SSSC and TCSR.

2. Shunt Controllers
 It could be a variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor or a power
electronic based variable source or combination of both .
 Inject a current in the system.
 If the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, it only
supplies or consumes reactive power.
 Examples of the shunt controllers include SVC and STATCOM.
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 3. Combined Series-Shunt Controllers
 It could be a combination of separate series and shunt controllers as
coordinated or unified.
 Combined series and shunt controller injects current into the system with shunt
part and voltage in series with series part of the controller.
 When shunt and series controllers are unified, there can be a real power
exchange between shunt and series controllers via DC power link.
 Example of this controller is UPFC.
4. Combined Series-Series Controllers
 The combination could be separate series controllers or unified series-series
controller.
 In this controller, master and slave are included in series with the line.
 The master converter controls both the active and reactive voltage (within
limits) while the slave converter controls the DC voltage (across the capacitor)
and the reactive voltage magnitude.
 Example of this controller is IPFC.
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 Types of FACTS Controllers
FACTS

Series- Series-
Series Shunt
Shunt Series
•Thyristor •Static VAR
Controlled Compensator •Unified •Interline
Series (SVC) Power Power
Capacitor Flow Flow
(TCSC) Controller Controller
(UPFC) (IPFC)
•Static •Static
Synchronous Synchronous
Series Compensator
Capacitor (STATCOM)
(SSSC)

Thyristor based-FACTS Controller: VSC based-FACTS Controller:

TCSC, TCSR, TSSC, TSSR, SVC etc. SSSC,STATCOM, UPFC, IPFC etc.

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 Types of FACTS Controllers

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 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

 This device provides reactive power quickly to HV transmission lines thus

enhancing the line performance.
 This SVC device was designed for impedance matching so that power system
come closer to unity power factor.
 A shunt-connected static VAR generator or absorber whose output is adjusted
to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control the bus
voltage.
 It regulates the line voltage by electronically switching an inductor or a
capacitor in shunt with the transmission line.
 SVC is a combination of TCRs and TSCs connected in shunt with the
transmission line.

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 Thyristor Controller Reactor (TCR)
 A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose effective reactance
is varied in a continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the
thyristor valve.
 Thyristor-controlled reactors can be used for limiting voltage rises on
lightly loaded transmission lines.

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 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
 A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose effective reactance
is varied in a stepwise manner by full-or zero- conduction operation of the
thyristor valve.
 The thyristor switched capacitor is used in EHV lines for providing leading
VARs during heavy loads.

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 One of the SVC scheme: TCR-FC

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 Thyristor Control Series Capacitor (TCSC)
A capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank
shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable
series capacitive reactance.

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 STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)
STATCOM is the voltage-source converter, which converts a DC input voltage into
AC output voltage in order to compensate the active and reactive needed by the
system.

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 Static Synchronous Series Compensator(SSSC)
SSSC is the solid-state synchronous voltage source employing an appropriate DC
to AC inverter with gate turn-off thyristor used for series compensation of
transmission lines.

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 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
UPFC is a combination of STATCOM and SSSC, which are coupled via a
common DC link, to allow bi-directional flow of real power between the
series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output terminals of the
STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent real and reactive series
line compensation without an external electric energy source.

 Independent reactive power exchange between shunt/series converters and

power system.
 Active power constraint : Pshunt = Pseries
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 Benefits of FACTS Technology
 Control of power flow as ordered.
 Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities.
 Increase the system security limit.
 Reduce reactive power flows .
 Reduce loop flows.
 Lower the cost of generation.
 Upgrade of lines.
 Provides greater flexibility in siting new generation.
 Provide secure tie line connections to neighboring utilities and regions

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