Chapter 4

Insulation Coordination
BG
TU-IOE

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 The term Insulation Co-ordination was originally introduced to arrange the insulation
levels of the several components in the transmission system in such a manner that an
insulation failure, if it did occur, would be confined to the place on the system where it
would result in the least damage, be the least expensive to repair, and cause the least
disturbance to the continuity of the supply.
The present usage of the term is broader. Insulation co-ordination now comprises the
selection of the electric strength of equipment in relation to the voltages which can appear
on the system for which the equipment is intended. The overall aim is to reduce to an
economically and operationally acceptable level the cost and disturbance caused by
insulation failure and resulting system outages.
To keep interruptions to a minimum, the insulation of the various parts of the system must
be so graded that flashovers only occur at intended points. With increasing system voltage,
the need to reduce the amount of insulation in the system, by proper co-ordination of the
insulating levels become more critical. So Insulation coordination means the correlation of
the insulation of the various equipment in a power system to the insulation of the protective
devices used for the protection of those equipment against overvoltages.
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 Terminology
Nominal System Voltage: It is the r.m.s. phase-to-phase (line) voltage by which a system is
designated.
Maximum System Voltage: It is the maximum rise of the r.m.s. phase-to-phase system
voltage.

Rated Short Duration Power Frequency Withstand Voltage: This is the prescribed r.m.s.
value of sinusoidal power frequency voltage that the equipment shall withstand during tests
made under specified conditions and for a specific time, usually not exceeding one minute.
Protective Level of Protective Device: These are the highest peak voltage value which should
not be exceeded at the terminals of a protective device when switching impulses and lightning
impulses of standard shape and rate values are applied under specific conditions.

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 Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Level (BIL): The crest value of a standard
lightning impulse for which the insulation exhibits a 90% probability of withstand (10%
probability of failure) under specified conditions.
Basic Switching Impulse Insulation Level (BSL):The crest value of a standard
switching impulse for which the insulation exhibits a 90% probability of withstand (10%
probability of failure) under specified conditions.
Lightning impulse wave shape
American Standard : 1.5/40 μs
Indian Standard : 1.2/50 μs Impulse Wave Shape
An 1.2/50 μs impulse wave
represents a unidirectional wave
which rises to its peak value from
zero in 1.2 microseconds and then
falls to 50% of peak value in 50
microseconds.
Switching impulse wave shapes: 100/2500 μs, 250/2500 μs, 500/2500 μs
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1/10/2024 BG 5
 Factor of Earthing: This is the ratio of the highest r.m.s. phase-to-earth power
frequency voltage on a sound phase during an earth fault to the r.m.s. phase-to-phase
power frequency voltage which would be obtained at the selected location without
the fault. This ratio characterizes, in general terms, the earthing conditions of a system
as viewed from the selected fault location.

Effectively Earthed System : A system is said to be effectively earthed if the factor of

earthing does not exceed 80%, and non-effectively earthed if it does. [Note: Factor of
earthing is 100% for an isolated neutral system, while it is 57.7% for a solidly earthed
system. In practice, the effectively earthed condition is obtained when the ratio x0/x1
< 3 and the ratio r0/x1 < 1.

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Volt-Time Curve
The breakdown voltage for a particular insulation or flashover voltage for a gap is a function of
both the magnitude of voltage and the time of application of the voltage.
 The volt-time curve is a graph showing the relation between the crest flashover voltages
and the time to flashover for a series of impulse applications of a given wave shape.
For the construction of volt-time curve, waves of the same shape but of different peak values
are applied to the insulation whose volt-time curve is required.

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  In a power system, various equipment like
transformers, circuit breakers, bus supports etc. have
different breakdown voltages and the volt-time
characteristics. For the proper protection of all the
equipment, it is desired that the insulation of the
various devices must be properly coordinated.
 The basic concept of insulation coordination is
illustrated in the Fig. Curve A is the volt-time curve of
the protective device and B the volt-time curve of the
equipment to be protected.
 This figure shows the desired positions of the volt-
time curves of the protecting device and the equipment
to be protected. Thus, any insulation having a Volt-time curve A (protective
withstand voltage strength in excess of the insulation device) and volt-time curve B
strength of curve B is protected by the protective (device to be protected)
device of curve A.

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 A lightning arrester (surge diverter) protects the transformer insulation in the entire time
region. The rod gap protects the transformer insulation, only if the rate of rise of surge is
less than the critical slope (curve X). Thus, if the surge voltage rise is as shown by curve 1,
rod gap flashes and protects the transformer. If the surge voltage rise follows curve 2, only
the surge diverter can protect the transformer insulation.
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 Significance of v-t curve
 v-t curve gives an idea of FOV at
different values of time of application of
various voltages. So it gives an idea of
protection level of various equipment.
 Useful in making proper insulation
coordination by determining the relative
margin in protection level of various
sub-station equipment.

For example, lets suppose that a L.A.

operates at 400 kV. If the margin for the
protection required is 15% plus 35 kV
between LA and transformer, then the
insulation level of transformer should be
495 kV.
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 The ideal requirements of a protective device connected in parallel or in shunt are:
(a) It should not usually flashover for power frequency overvoltages.
(b) The volt-time characteristics of the device must lie below the withstand voltage of
the protected apparatus or insulation. The marginal difference between the above
two should be adequate to allow for the effects of distance, polarity, atmospheric
conditions, changes in the characteristics of the devices due to aging, etc.
(c) It should be capable of discharging high energies contained in surges and recover
insulation strength quickly.
(d) It should not allow power frequency follow-on current to flow.

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Surge Protection
An overhead earth wire provides considerable protection against direct strikes. They also
reduce induced overvoltages. However, they do not provide protection against surges that
may still reach the terminal equipment. Such protection may either be done by diverting
the major part of the energy of the surge to earth (surge diverters), or by modifying the
waveform to make it less harmful (surge modifiers). The insertion of a short length of
cable between an overhead line and a terminal equipment is the commonest form of surge
modifier.

Spark gaps (rod gaps) for surge protection

The simplest and cheapest form of protection is the spark gap.
The selected gap spacing should not only be capable of
withstanding the highest normal power frequency voltage but
should flash-over when overvoltages occur, protecting the
equipment.

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 Rod gaps are simple and cheap devices but do not meet all the requirements of a
protective device. Moreover, their flashover characteristics depend on the
atmospheric conditions, polarity of the wave, and waveshape.

Also, it may give rise to very steep impulse waves on the transformer windings as
chopped waves, because no current limiting resistance is used. Chopped impulse
waves may lead to the destruction of the transformer turn to turn insulation.

But still, rod gaps provide reasonable protection where lightning surge levels are
low, and steep fronted surges are controlled by overhead ground wires.

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Surge Diverters
Surge diverters (or surge arrestors) generally consist of spark gaps in series, together with one
or more non-linear resistors in series. Silicon Carbide (SiC) was the material most often used
in these nonlinear resistor surge diverters. However, Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is being used in most
modern day surge diverters on account of its superior volt-ampere characteristic. In fact the
ZnO arrestor is often used gapless, as its normal follow on current is negligibly small.

When a surge voltage is

applied to the surge
diverter, it breaks down
giving the discharge
current and maintains a
voltage across it. Thus, it
provides a protection to
the apparatus to be
protected above the
protective level.
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Selection of Surge Diverters
Surge diverters for a particular purpose are selected as follows.
(a) Rated Voltage
The designated maximum permissible r.m.s. value of power frequency voltage between line
and earth terminals.
This is generally selected corresponding to 80% of the system phase-to-phase voltage for
effectively earthed systems and corresponding to 100% of the system phase-to-phase voltage
for non-effectively earthed systems. [Note: A surge diverter of a higher rating may sometimes
have to be chosen if some of the other required criteria are not satisfied by this diverter].
(b) Discharge Current
The surge current that flows through the surge diverter after spark over.
Nominal discharge current: This is the discharge current having a designated crest value and
wave shape, which is used to classify a surge diverter with respect to durability and protective
characteristics.
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The standard waveform for the discharge current is taken as 8/20 µs or 10/350 µs.
The nominal value of discharge current is selected from the standard values 10 kA (station
type), 5 kA (intermediate line type), 2.5 kA (distribution type) and 1.5 kA (secondary type),
depending on the application. The highest ratings are used for the protection of major power
stations, while the lowest ratings are used in rural distribution systems. The above nominal
discharge currents are chosen based on statistical investigations which have shown that surge
diverter currents at the station has the following characteristic.
99 % of discharge currents are less than 10 kA
95 % of discharge currents are less than 5 kA
90 % of discharge currents are less than 3 kA
70 % of discharge currents are less than 1 kA
50 % of discharge currents are less than 0.5 kA
(c) Discharge Voltage (or Residual voltage)
The Discharge voltage is the voltage that appears between the line and earth terminals of the
surge diverter during the passage of discharge currents.

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 The discharge voltage of the selected arrestor should be below the BIL of the protected
equipment by a suitable margin (generally selected between 15% and 25%).
The discharge voltage of an arrestor at nominal discharge current is not a constant, but also
depends on the rate of rise of the current and the wave shape. Typically, an increase of the
rate of rise from 1 kA/µs to 5 kA/µs would increase the discharge voltage by only about 35
%.
The dependence of the discharge voltage on the discharge current is also small. Typically,
an increase of discharge current from 5 kA to 10 kA would increase the discharge voltage by
about 15% for Silicon Carbide arrestors and by about 2% for Zinc Oxide arrestors. [The
discharge voltage is more often referred to as the residual discharge voltage].
(d) Power frequency spark over voltage
The power frequency spark over voltage is the r.m.s. value of the lowest power frequency
voltage, applied between the line and earth terminals of a surge diverter, which causes
spark-over of all the series gaps. The power frequency spark over voltage should generally
be greater than about 1.5 times the rated voltage of the arrestor, to prevent unnecessary
sparkover during normal switching operations.
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 (e) Impulse spark over voltage
The impulse spark over voltage is the highest value of voltage attained during an impulse of
a given wave shape and polarity, applied between the line and earth terminals of a surge
diverter prior to the flow of discharge current.
The impulse spark over voltage is not a constant but is dependant on the duration of
application. Thus it is common to define a wavefront impulse sparkover voltage in addition
to the impulse spark-over voltage.

Good designs aim to keep (i) the peak discharge residual voltage, (ii) the impulse sparkover
voltage and (iii) the wavefront impulse sparkover voltage reasonably close to each other.

Table in the next page gives a typical comparison

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1/10/2024 BG 19
 Protection of Lines by Insulators
In a transmission line, an insulator serves two purposes;
i) Mechanical support to the conductor, and
ii) Electrical separation between the line and the supporting structure (pole, tower)
Insulators are required to withstand not only the normal power frequency overvoltage but
are required to withstand other high voltages too. Besides, they are required to operate in
the worst conditions.
Transmission insulators come in various shapes and types, including individual or strings
of disks, line posts or long rods. They are made of ceramic (glass and porcelain) or
polymers- each with different densities, tensile strengths and performing properties in
adverse conditions.
Porcelain insulators: Strings of discs, post type, bushing
Polymer insulators: longrod, post type, bushing

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 Use of Insulators in Tr. Line

Ceramic (porcelain or glass) Insulator Discs

Composite (polymer) Insulators
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 Flashover: The connection of two ends of the insulator by an arc is called flashover.
Flashover and withstand tests are made before installing insulators on the line. Flashover
voltage (FOV) level of the insulator may get reduced over time.
Reasons for reductions of FOV:
1) Aging 2) Contaminant deposition 3) Wetting, leakage current development and
dry band formation 4) Arcing
Bushing:
Bushing is an insulation device that allows an electrical conductor to pass safely through
barriers such as the building wall or the transformer wall. It is a cylindrical insulator with a
porcelain or polymer housing. Conductor passes through the center of this cylinder. A
bushing may be hollow or insulating oil filled.

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 Arcing horns:
‘Arcing horns’ or ‘arc horns’ are projecting conductors
used to protect insulators on high voltage lines from
damage during flashovers. Flashover along the insulator
can cause degradation of the insulator surface. The arc
horns encourage the flashover to occur between
themselves rather than across the insulators.
 Horns are paired on the either side of the insulator.
 Horns are frequently seen in HV O/H lines and
transformer bushing
 Horn gap is calculated according to the dielectric
strength of air in the surrounding.
 Altitude is also considered while determining the
horn gap. Normally, same value is used up to 1,000
m. above sea level. An increase of 1% per 100 m. is
made after this altitude.

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 Grading Rings:
Grading ring is a large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit of the
insulator string and connected to the line. This introduces new
capacitances between different metallic joints of the insulator string
and the line. The overall effect is the improved string efficiency.

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Voltage across Equipment Protected by Arrester
In ideal case, the arrester must be located adjacent to the transformer or shunt reactor. In
practice, however, there may be length of the line between the two extending to 20 to 40 m.
This results in a slightly higher voltage across the equipment due to repeated reflections.
The high inductance of a transformer or reactor represents nearly an open-circuit to a surge.
The excess voltage experienced is given by an empirical equation and depends on the line
length and the rate of rise of the voltage.
ΔV = (dVw/dt) . (l/150) kV
where,
l = length of the line (between LA and equipment) in m
dVw/dt = steepness of wave front in kV/µS of the incoming wave. This can be taken as
approximately 500 kV/µS for lines with overhead ground wires and 1,000 kV/µS when a
line conductor is hit.

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Calculations of Lightning Arrester
The volt-ampere characteristics of the resistance element inside a lightning arrester is given by,
I=kVa
where; I = discharge current
V = applied voltage across the element
k, a = constants depending on material and dimensions

When a surge voltage Vw is applied to the surge arrester, it breaks down giving the discharge
current Ia and maintains a voltage Vp across it.

Vw Iw Vp

Ia
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 Initial surge current through the line,
Iw = Vw/Z
With the arrester connected, the current through it is given by,
Ia = (2Vw-Vp)/Z

This is because the arrester terminals behave as

the open circuit initially and 2Vw is the voltage
at the terminal after the first reflection at the
open terminals. Also, there is a voltage drop Vp
across the arrester terminals which is opposite to
the surge voltage appearing (2Vw) at the
terminals. So the expression above.

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Equipment Insulation Level and Insulation Coordination of Sub-stations

For steep fronted lightning waves at sub-stations and at different points on lines, the voltages
at sub-stations may exceed the protective level depending on the distances involved and the
diverter locations. Hence, it is necessary to decide the number of locations for diverters to
optimize the overall cost. For high voltage sub-stations, it is usual to install surge diverters
between a transformer and its circuit breaker, in order to protect the transformer from current
chopping and the overvoltage due to it. Further, nearness of the diverter to the transformer
offers better protection.
 The basic insulation level is often determined by giving a margin of 30% to the protective
level of surge diverter and selecting the next nearest standard BIL.
 When a surge diverter is used to give switching surge protection also, the margin allowed
is only 15%.
 The insulation level for lines and other equipment is to be chosen separately. The selection
of this level for lines depends on the atmospheric conditions, the lightning activity,
insulation pollution present and the acceptable outrage or failure rate of the line.

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  The protective level of the sub-station insulation depends on the station location, the
protective level of the diverter, and the line shielding used. The line insulation in the
end spans near the sub-station is normally reduced to limit the lightning overvoltages
reaching the sub-station.

 In a sub-station, the busbar insulation level is the highest to ensure continuity of supply.
The circuit breakers, isolators, instrument and relay transformers, etc. are given the
next lower level. Since the power transformer is the costly and sensitive device, the
insulation level for it is the lowest.

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The standard values of BIL for system voltages from 145 to 765 are given in Tables below.
Insulation Levels (BIL) for Various System Voltages

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 Standard Insulation Levels for Equipment (> 300 kV)

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Example:
(1) Insulation co-ordination of a 132-kV sub-station

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(2) Insulation co-ordination of a 220-kV sub-station
Nominal system voltage = 220 kV
Highest system voltage = 245 kV
Highest system voltage to ground = 244 (√2/√3) = 200 kV
Expected switching surge voltage ≈ 3.0 p.u. = 600 kV
Lightning arrester of 196 kV (as available) is chosen.
Front of wave impulse spark overvoltage ≈ 760 kV
Discharge voltage for 5 kA lightning surge current ≈ 690 kV
Discharge voltage for 2 kA switching surge current ≈ 615 kV
BIL for 220 kV system = 1050 kV
SIL for 220 kV System = 1050/1.24 ≈ 850 kV (The ratio of 1.24 is as per the design practice)
Protective margin for lightning impulses = (1050-690)/1050 = 360/1050 = 34.3%
Protective margin for switching surges = (850-615)/850 = 27.6%
The margin when the lightning just sparks over = (1050-760)/1050 = 27.5%
The protective level is adequate (more than 25%)/
(The lightning arrester data is as provided by the manufacturer.)
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 Numerical examples
1) A lightning arrester with BIL rating of 1600 kV is located at the end of the line having
surge impedance of 300 Ω receives a travelling wave of 4200 kV. Determine the
following;
(i) Arrester discharge current
(ii) Resistance offered by the arrester
(iii) Reflected current
(iv) Reflected voltage

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 2) The arrester discharge voltage is 320 kV. A surge having steepness of 800 kV/μS on the
front reaches the arrester. Calculate the voltage across the terminal of a transformer
located at a distance of 30 m from the arrester.

800 kV/μS 30 m
Vw
Vp
Ia
R

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 3) A transformer is protected by an arrester at the incoming line. The BIL withstand
voltage of the transformer is chosen to be 500 kV. The protective ratio required for
transformer protection is 1.2. A lightning strike at the arrester causes an arrester discharge
current of 24 kA. Check whether the transformer is properly coordinated.
Assume arrester residual voltage to be given by 200Id0.25.

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 4) A 132 kV transmission line is terminated by a transformer at a substation. The
transformer is protected by arrester of rating 400 kV located at the incoming line. The
BIL withstand voltage of the transformer is chosen to be 500 kV and the protective ratio
(PR) required for transformer protection is 1.2.
Check whether the transformer is properly coordinated with the arrester if a lightning
stroke of 8000 kV is incident at the arrester.
The relationship between the discharge current and the residual voltage is given by
Vd = kIdβ.

Discharge Current Residual Voltage

10 kA 300 kV
20 kA 360 kV

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 5) For a 750 kV line, take Vw = 3000 kV and BIL of LA (Vp) = 1700 kV. The line surge
impedance is Z = 300 Ω. Calculate:
(i) the current flowing in the line before reaching the arrester.
(ii) the current through the arrester.
(iii) the value of arrester resistance for this condition
(iv) reflection and refraction coefficients.

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