Resistors

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current.

This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known
as a schematic.
Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm
resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ), and 1000 K-Ohms is
written as 1M-Ohm ( megohm ).

There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors.
They are also classified according to the material from which they are made.
The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There are
other types as well, but these are the most common.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when
selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power
ratings of the resistor are also important.
The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated
resistence value. For example, a ±5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that
is within ±5% of the specified resistance value.
The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate.
Just like you wouldn't use a 6 volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out
light in your house, you wouldn't use a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be
using a 1/2 watt resistor.

The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts.

Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I2 ) x the resistance value
( R ) of the resistor. If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will
become extremely hot, and even burn.
Resistors in electronic circuits are typicaly rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W.
1/8W is almost always used in signal circuit applications.
When powering a light emitting diode, a comparatively large current flows
through the resistor, so you need to consider the power rating of the resistor
you choose.

Rating electric power

For example, to power a 5V circuit using a 12V supply, a three-
terminal voltage regulator is usually used.
However, if you try to drop the voltage from 12V to 5V using only a
resistor, then you need to calculate the power rating of the resistor as
well as the resistance value.

At this time, the current consumed by the 5V circuit needs to be

 known.
Here are a few ways to find out how much current the circuit
demands.
Assemble the circuit and measure the actual current used with a
multi-meter.
Check the component's current use against a standard table.
Assume the current consumed is 100 mA (milliamps) in the following
example.
7V must be dropped with the resistor. The resistance value of the
resistor becomes 7V / 0.1A = 70(ohm). The consumption of electric
power for this resistor becomes 0.1A x 0.1A x 70 ohm = 0.7W.
Generally, it's safe to choose a resistor which has a power rating of
about twice the power consumption needed.
Resistance value
For example, in the case of E3, The values [1], [2.2], [4.7] and [10]
are used. They divide 10 into three, like a logarithm.
In the case of E6 : [1], [1.5], [2.2], [3.3], [4.7], [6.8], [10].
In the case of E12 : [1], [1.2], [1.5], [1.8], [2.2], [2.7], [3.3], [3.9],
[4.7], [5.6], [6.8], [8.2], [10].
It is because of this that the resistance value is seen at a glance to be a
discrete value.
The resistance value is displayed using the color code( the colored
bars/the colored stripes ), because the average resistor is too small to
have the value printed on it with numbers.
You had better learn the color code, because almost all resistors of
1/2W or less use the color code to display the resistance value.

Fixed Resistors
A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot
change.
Carbon film resistors
This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance
of the resistance value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and
1/2W are frequently used.
Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically
noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analog
circuits. However, I have never experienced any problems with this
noise.
The physical size of the different resistors are as follows.
 Rough size
Rating power Thickness Length
(W) (mm) (mm)
From the top of the photograph 1/8 2 3
1/8W 1/4 2 6
1/4W
1/2 3 9
1/2W

This resistor is called a Single-In-Line(SIL) resistor network. It is

made with many resistors of the same value, all in one package. One
side of each resistor is connected with one side of all the other
resistors inside. One example of its use would be to control the
current in a circuit powering many light emitting diodes (LEDs).
In the photograph on the left, 8 resistors are housed in the package.
Each of the leads on the package is one resistor. The ninth lead on the
left side is the common lead. The face value of the resistance is
printed. ( It depends on the supplier. )
Some resistor networks have a "4S" printed on the top of the resistor
network. The 4S indicates that the package contains 4 independent
resistors that are not wired together inside. The housing has eight
leads instead of nine. The internal wiring of these typical resistor
networks has been illustrated below. The size (black part) of the
resistor network which I have is as follows: For the type with 9 leads,
the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and the width 23 mm. For
the types with 8 component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height
5 mm, and the width 20 mm.

Metal film resistors

Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate
value) is needed. They are much more accurate in value than carbon
film resistors. They have about ±0.05% tolerance. They have about
±0.05% tolerance. I don't use any high tolerance resistors in my
circuits. Resistors that are about ±1% are more than sufficient. Ni-Cr
(Nichrome) seems to be used for the material of resistor. The metal
 film resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise
analog signal circuits.

Rough size
Rating power Thickness Length
(W) (mm) (mm)
From the top of the photograph 1/8 2 3
1/8W (tolerance ±1%) 1/4 2 6
1/4W (tolerance ±1%) 1 3.5 12
1W (tolerance ±5%)
2W (tolerance ±5%) 2 5 15

Variable Resistors
 There are two
general ways in
which variable
resistors are used.
One is the variable
resistor which
value is easily
changed, like the
volume
adjustment of
Radio. The other
is semi-fixed resistor that is
not meant to be adjusted by
anyone but a technician. It is
used to adjust the operating
condition of the circuit by
the technician. Semi-fixed
resistors are used to
compensate for the
inaccuracies of the resistors,
and to fine-tune a circuit.
The rotation angle of the
variable resistor is usually
about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many
times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This allows for
very precise adjustments of their value. These are called
"Potentiometers" or "Trimmer Potentiometers."

In the photograph to the left, the variable resistor typically used for
volume controls can be seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to
adjust.
The four resistors at the center of the photograph are the semi-fixed
type. These ones are mounted on the printed circuit board.
The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers.

This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit

diagram.

There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change
according to the rotation angle of its axis.
When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance value
changes slowly and then in the second half of its axis, it changes very
 quickly.
The "A" type variable resistor is
typically used for the volume
control of a radio, for example.
It is well suited to adjust a low
sound subtly. It suits the
characteristics of the ear. The ear
hears low sound changes well,
but isn't as sensitive to small changes in loud sounds. A larger change
is needed as the volume is increased. These "A" type variable
resistors are sometimes called "audio taper" potentiometers.
As for type "B", the rotation of the axis and the change of the
resistance value are directly related. The rate of change is the same, or
linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits a resistance
value adjustment in a circuit, a balance circuit and so on.
They are sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers.
Type "C" changes exactly the opposite way to type "A". In the early
stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance value changes rapidly,
and in the second half, the change occurs more slowly. This type isn't
too much used. It is a special use.
As for the variable resistor, most are type "A" or type "B".

CDS Elements
Some components can change resistance value by changes in the
amount of light hitting them. One type is the Cadmium Sulfide
Photocell. (Cd) The more light that hits it, the smaller its resistance
value becomes.
There are many types of these devices. They vary according to light
sensitivity, size, resistance value etc.

Pictured at the left is a typical CDS photocell. Its diameter is 8 mm, 4 mm

high, with a cylinder form. When bright light is hitting it, the value is about
200 ohms, and when in the dark, the resistance value is about 2M ohms.
This device is using for the head lamp illumination confirmation device of
the car, for example.

Other Resistors
There is another type of resistor other than the carbon-film type and
the metal film resistors. It is the wirewound resistor.
A wirewound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because
 of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high-
wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material.
Wirewound resistors cannot be used for high-frequency circuits. Coils
are used in high frequency circuits. Since a wirewound resistor is a
wire wrapped around an insulator, it is also a coil, in a manner of
speaking. Using one could change the behavior of the circuit. Still
another type of resistor is the Ceramic resistor. These are wirewound
resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with a special cement. They
have very high power ratings, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts.
These resistors can become extremely hot when used for high power
applications, and this must be taken into account when designing the
circuit. These devices can easily get hot enough to burn you if you
touch one.
The photograph on the left is of wirewound
resistors.
The upper one is 10W and is the length of 45
mm, 13 mm thickness.
The lower one is 50W and is the length of 75
mm, 29 mm thickness.
The upper one is has metal fittings attached.
These devices are insulated with a ceramic
coating.

The photograph on above is a ceramic (or

cement) resistor of 5W and is the height of 9
mm, 9 mm depth, 22 mm width.

Thermistor ( Thermally sensitive resistor )

 The resistance value of the thermistor changes
according to temperature.
This part is used as a temperature sensor.

There are mainly three types of thermistor.

NTC(Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor)
: With this type, the resistance value decreases continuously as the
temperature rises.

PTC(Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor)

: With this type, the resistance value increases suddenly when the
temperature rises above a specific point.

CTR(Critical Temperature Resister Thermistor)

: With this type, the resistance value decreases suddenly when the
temperature rises above a specific point.
The NTC type is used for the temperature control.

The relation between the temperature and the resistance value of the NTC type can
be calculated using the following formula.

R : The resistance value at the temperature T

T : The temperature [K]
R0 : The resistance value at the reference temperature T0
T0 : The reference temperature [K]
B : The coefficient

As the reference temperature, typically, 25°C is used.

The unit with the temperature is the absolute temperature(Value of which 0
was -273°C) in K(Kelvin).
25°C are the 298 kelvins.

Resistor color code

 Tolerance
Color Value Multiplier
(%)

Black 0 0 -

Brown 1 1 ±1

Example 1 Red 2 2 ±2
(Brown=1),(Black=0),(Orange=3) Orange 3 3 ±0.05
x 103 = 10k ohm
Tolerance(Gold) = ±5% Yellow 4 4 -

Green 5 5 ±0.5

Blue 6 6 ±0.25

Violet 7 7 ±0.1

Gray 8 8 -

White 9 9 -

Example 2 Gold - -1 ±5
(Yellow=4),(Violet=7),(Black=0),(Red=2)
Silver - -2 ±10
470 x 102 = 47k ohm
Tolerance(Brown) = ±1% None - - ±20

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