Rectifier circuits

Now we come to the most popular application of the diode: rectification. Simply defined,
rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This
involves a device that only allows one-way flow of electrons. As we have seen, this is
exactly what a semiconductor diode does. The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-
wave rectifier. It only allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load.
(Figure below)

Half-wave rectifier circuit.

For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient for the task. The
harmonic content of the rectifier's output waveform is very large and consequently
difficult to filter. Furthermore, the AC power source only supplies power to the load once
every half-cycle, meaning that much of its capacity is unused. Half-wave rectification is,
however, a very simple way to reduce power to a resistive load. Some two-position lamp
dimmer switches apply full AC power to the lamp filament for “full” brightness and then
half-wave rectify it for a lesser light output. (Figure below)

Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer.

In the “Dim” switch position, the incandescent lamp receives approximately one-half the
power it would normally receive operating on full-wave AC. Because the half-wave
rectified power pulses far more rapidly than the filament has time to heat up and cool
down, the lamp does not blink. Instead, its filament merely operates at a lesser
temperature than normal, providing less light output. This principle of “pulsing” power
rapidly to a slow-responding load device to control the electrical power sent to it is
common in the world of industrial electronics. Since the controlling device (the diode, in
this case) is either fully conducting or fully nonconducting at any given time, it dissipates
little heat energy while controlling load power, making this method of power control very
energy-efficient. This circuit is perhaps the crudest possible method of pulsing power to a
load, but it suffices as a proof-of-concept application.

If we need to rectify AC power to obtain the full use of both half-cycles of the sine wave, a
different rectifier circuit configuration must be used. Such a circuit is called a full-wave
rectifier. One kind of full-wave rectifier, called the center-tap design, uses a transformer
with a center-tapped secondary winding and two diodes, as in Figure below.

Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design.

This circuit's operation is easily understood one half-cycle at a time. Consider the first
half-cycle, when the source voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on
bottom. At this time, only the top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking
current, and the load “sees” the first half of the sine wave, positive on top and negative
on bottom. Only the top half of the transformer's secondary winding carries current during
this half-cycle as in Figure below.

Full-wave center-tap rectifier: Top half of secondary winding conducts during positive half-
cycle of input, delivering positive half-cycle to load..

During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the other diode and the other
half of the transformer's secondary winding carry current while the portions of the circuit
formerly carrying current during the last half-cycle sit idle. The load still “sees” half of a
sine wave, of the same polarity as before: positive on top and negative on bottom. (Figure
below)
Full-wave center-tap rectifier: During negative input half-cycle, bottom half of secondary
winding conducts, delivering a positive half-cycle to the load.

One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is the necessity of a transformer with a
center-tapped secondary winding. If the circuit in question is one of high power, the size
and expense of a suitable transformer is significant. Consequently, the center-tap rectifier
design is only seen in low-power applications.

The full-wave center-tapped rectifier polarity at the load may be reversed by changing the
direction of the diodes. Furthermore, the reversed diodes can be paralleled with an
existing positive-output rectifier. The result is dual-polarity full-wave center-tapped
rectifier in Figure below. Note that the connectivity of the diodes themselves is the same
configuration as a bridge.

Dual polarity full-wave center tap rectifier

Another, more popular full-wave rectifier design exists, and it is built around a four-diode
bridge configuration. For obvious reasons, this design is called a full-wave bridge. (Figure
below)
Full-wave bridge rectifier.

Current directions for the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit are as shown in Figure below for
positive half-cycle and Figure below for negative half-cycles of the AC source waveform.
Note that regardless of the polarity of the input, the current flows in the same direction
through the load. That is, the negative half-cycle of source is a positive half-cycle at the
load. The current flow is through two diodes in series for both polarities. Thus, two diode
drops of the source voltage are lost (0.7·2=1.4 V for Si) in the diodes. This is a
disadvantage compared with a full-wave center-tap design. This disadvantage is only a
problem in very low voltage power supplies.

Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for positive half-cycles.

Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for negative half=cycles.

Remembering the proper layout of diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit can often
be frustrating to the new student of electronics. I've found that an alternative
representation of this circuit is easier both to remember and to comprehend. It's the
exact same circuit, except all diodes are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all “pointing” the
same direction. (Figure below)

Alternative layout style for Full-wave bridge rectifier.

One advantage of remembering this layout for a bridge rectifier circuit is that it expands
easily into a polyphase version in Figure below.

Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

Each three-phase line connects between a pair of diodes: one to route power to the
positive (+) side of the load, and the other to route power to the negative (-) side of the
load. Polyphase systems with more than three phases are easily accommodated into a
bridge rectifier scheme. Take for instance the six-phase bridge rectifier circuit in Figure
below.
Six-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.

When polyphase AC is rectified, the phase-shifted pulses overlap each other to produce a
DC output that is much “smoother” (has less AC content) than that produced by the
rectification of single-phase AC. This is a decided advantage in high-power rectifier
circuits, where the sheer physical size of filtering components would be prohibitive but
low-noise DC power must be obtained. The diagram in Figure below shows the full-wave
rectification of three-phase AC.

Three-phase AC and 3-phase full-wave rectifier output.

In any case of rectification -- single-phase or polyphase -- the amount of AC voltage mixed

with the rectifier's DC output is called ripple voltage. In most cases, since “pure” DC is the
desired goal, ripple voltage is undesirable. If the power levels are not too great, filtering
networks may be employed to reduce the amount of ripple in the output voltage.
Sometimes, the method of rectification is referred to by counting the number of DC
“pulses” output for every 360o of electrical “rotation.” A single-phase, half-wave rectifier
circuit, then, would be called a 1-pulse rectifier, because it produces a single pulse during
the time of one complete cycle (360o) of the AC waveform. A single-phase, full-wave
rectifier (regardless of design, center-tap or bridge) would be called a 2-pulse rectifier,
because it outputs two pulses of DC during one AC cycle's worth of time. A three-phase
full-wave rectifier would be called a 6-pulse unit.

Modern electrical engineering convention further describes the function of a rectifier

circuit by using a three-field notation of phases, ways, and number of pulses. A single-
phase, half-wave rectifier circuit is given the somewhat cryptic designation of 1Ph1W1P (1
phase, 1 way, 1 pulse), meaning that the AC supply voltage is single-phase, that current
on each phase of the AC supply lines moves in only one direction (way), and that there is
a single pulse of DC produced for every 360o of electrical rotation. A single-phase, full-
wave, center-tap rectifier circuit would be designated as 1Ph1W2P in this notational
system: 1 phase, 1 way or direction of current in each winding half, and 2 pulses or
output voltage per cycle. A single-phase, full-wave, bridge rectifier would be designated
as 1Ph2W2P: the same as for the center-tap design, except current can go both ways
through the AC lines instead of just one way. The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit
shown earlier would be called a 3Ph2W6P rectifier.

Is it possible to obtain more pulses than twice the number of phases in a rectifier circuit?
The answer to this question is yes: especially in polyphase circuits. Through the creative
use of transformers, sets of full-wave rectifiers may be paralleled in such a way that more
than six pulses of DC are produced for three phases of AC. A 30 o phase shift is introduced
from primary to secondary of a three-phase transformer when the winding configurations
are not of the same type. In other words, a transformer connected either Y-Δ or Δ-Y will
exhibit this 30o phase shift, while a transformer connected Y-Y or Δ-Δ will not. This
phenomenon may be exploited by having one transformer connected Y-Y feed a bridge
rectifier, and have another transformer connected Y-Δ feed a second bridge rectifier, then
parallel the DC outputs of both rectifiers. (Figure below) Since the ripple voltage
waveforms of the two rectifiers' outputs are phase-shifted 30 o from one another, their
superposition results in less ripple than either rectifier output considered separately: 12
pulses per 360o instead of just six:
Polyphase rectifier circuit: 3-phase 2-way 12-pulse (3Ph2W12P)

Meter check of a diode

Being able to determine the polarity (cathode versus anode) and basic functionality of a
diode is a very important skill for the electronics hobbyist or technician to have. Since we
know that a diode is essentially nothing more than a one-way valve for electricity, it
makes sense we should be able to verify its one-way nature using a DC (battery-powered)
ohmmeter as in Figure below. Connected one way across the diode, the meter should
show a very low resistance at (a). Connected the other way across the diode, it should
show a very high resistance at (b) (“OL” on some digital meter models).

Determination of diode polarity: (a) Low resistance indicates forward bias, black lead is
cathode and red lead anode (for most meters) (b) Reversing leads shows high resistance
indicating reverse bias.

Of course, to determine which end of the diode is the cathode and which is the anode,
you must know with certainty which test lead of the meter is positive (+) and which is
negative (-) when set to the “resistance” or “Ω” function. With most digital multimeters
I've seen, the red lead becomes positive and the black lead negative when set to measure
resistance, in accordance with standard electronics color-code convention. However, this
is not guaranteed for all meters. Many analog multimeters, for example, actually make
their black leads positive (+) and their red leads negative (-) when switched to the
“resistance” function, because it is easier to manufacture it that way!

One problem with using an ohmmeter to check a diode is that the readings obtained only
have qualitative value, not quantitative. In other words, an ohmmeter only tells you which
way the diode conducts; the low-value resistance indication obtained while conducting is
useless. If an ohmmeter shows a value of “1.73 ohms” while forward-biasing a diode, that
figure of 1.73 Ω doesn't represent any real-world quantity useful to us as technicians or
circuit designers. It neither represents the forward voltage drop nor any “bulk” resistance
in the semiconductor material of the diode itself, but rather is a figure dependent upon
both quantities and will vary substantially with the particular ohmmeter used to take the
reading.

For this reason, some digital multimeter manufacturers equip their meters with a special
“diode check” function which displays the actual forward voltage drop of the diode in
volts, rather than a “resistance” figure in ohms. These meters work by forcing a small
current through the diode and measuring the voltage dropped between the two test
leads. (Figure below)

Meter with a “Diode check” function displays the forward voltage drop of 0.548 volts
instead of a low resistance.

The forward voltage reading obtained with such a meter will typically be less than the
“normal” drop of 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, because the current
provided by the meter is of trivial proportions. If a multimeter with diode-check function
isn't available, or you would like to measure a diode's forward voltage drop at some non-
trivial current, the circuit of Figure below may be constructed using a battery, resistor,
and voltmeter
Measuring forward voltage of a diode without“diode check” meter function: (a) Schematic
diagram. (b) Pictorial diagram.

Connecting the diode backwards to this testing circuit will simply result in the voltmeter
indicating the full voltage of the battery.

If this circuit were designed to provide a constant or nearly constant current through the
diode despite changes in forward voltage drop, it could be used as the basis of a
temperature-measurement instrument, the voltage measured across the diode being
inversely proportional to diode junction temperature. Of course, diode current should be
kept to a minimum to avoid self-heating (the diode dissipating substantial amounts of
heat energy), which would interfere with temperature measurement.

Beware that some digital multimeters equipped with a “diode check” function may output
a very low test voltage (less than 0.3 volts) when set to the regular “resistance” (Ω)
function: too low to fully collapse the depletion region of a PN junction. The philosophy
here is that the “diode check” function is to be used for testing semiconductor devices,
and the “resistance” function for anything else. By using a very low test voltage to
measure resistance, it is easier for a technician to measure the resistance of non-
semiconductor components connected to semiconductor components, since the
semiconductor component junctions will not become forward-biased with such low
voltages.

Consider the example of a resistor and diode connected in parallel, soldered in place on a
printed circuit board (PCB). Normally, one would have to unsolder the resistor from the
circuit (disconnect it from all other components) before measuring its resistance,
otherwise any parallel-connected components would affect the reading obtained. When
using a multimeter which outputs a very low test voltage to the probes in the “resistance”
function mode, the diode's PN junction will not have enough voltage impressed across it
to become forward-biased, and will only pass negligible current. Consequently, the meter
“sees” the diode as an open (no continuity), and only registers the resistor's resistance.
(Figure below)
Ohmmeter equipped with a low test voltage (<0.7 V) does not see diodes allowing it to
measure parallel resistors.

If such an ohmmeter were used to test a diode, it would indicate a very high resistance
(many mega-ohms) even if connected to the diode in the “correct” (forward-biased)
direction. (Figure below)

Ohmmeter equipped with a low test voltage, too low to forward bias diodes, does not see
diodes.

Reverse voltage strength of a diode is not as easily tested, because exceeding a normal
diode's PIV usually results in destruction of the diode. Special types of diodes, though,
which are designed to “break down” in reverse-bias mode without damage (called zener
diodes), which are tested with the same voltage source / resistor / voltmeter circuit,
provided that the voltage source is of high enough value to force the diode into its
breakdown region. More on this subject in a later section of this chapter.