Airline Ticketing And Fare Construction

CIA1 BBA AVIATION VI/25.. 22/01/25

Q.1. What is the full form of IATA?

International Air Transport Association.

Q.2. What does ICAO stand for?

International Civil Aviation Organization.

Q.3. What is the abbreviation for Air India in IATA and ICAO codes?

IATA Code: AI ; ICAO Code: AIC.

Q.4. What does PAX mean in airline terminology?

Passengers.

Q.5. What is the meaning of ATC in aviation?

Air Traffic Control.

Q.6. What is an AOC in air transport?

Air Operator Certificate.

Q.7. What does MTOW stand for?

Maximum Take-off Weight.

Q.8. What is the abbreviation for Qatar Airways?

IATA Code: QR : ICAO Code: QTR.

Q.9. What does MEL represent in air transport?

Minimum Equipment List.

Q10. What does SID mean in aviation?

Standard Instrument Departure.

Q.1. What is checked baggage?

Checked baggage is luggage handed over to the airline at check-in and stored
in the aircraft's cargo hold during the flight.

Q. 2. What is carry-on baggage?

Carry-on baggage is luggage that passengers bring into the aircraft cabin,
stored in overhead compartments or under seats.

Q. 3. What does AWB stand for in air cargo?

AWB stands for Air Waybill, a document used for tracking cargo shipments.

Q. 4. What is a ULD in baggage handling?

A ULD (Unit Load Device) is a standardized container or pallet used for

transporting baggage or cargo efficiently in aircraft.

Q. 5. What technology is used to track baggage in real-time?

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags and tracking systems.

Q.6. What is a baggage claim area?

The area where passengers retrieve their checked luggage after arriving at
their destination.

Q.7. What is the meaning of priority baggage?

Priority baggage refers to luggage that is handled and delivered first, often
for premium-class passengers or frequent flyers.

Q.8. What are the common weight limits for checked baggage?

Typically, 15–30 kg for economy class, depending on the airline and route.

Q. 9. What happens to unclaimed baggage?

Unclaimed baggage is usually stored for a period, after which it may be

auctioned or donated if not claimed.
Q. 10. How do baggage drop counters enhance airport efficiency?

They allow passengers to drop off their tagged luggage independently,

reducing waiting times and improving flow.

1. What is the Chicago Convention (1944)?

The Chicago Convention established the legal framework for international

civil aviation and led to the creation of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO).

2. What does ICAO stand for, and what is its role?

ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation Organization, which sets global
standards for aviation safety, security, efficiency, and environmental
protection.

3. What is the Montreal Convention (1999)?

The Montreal Convention governs airline liability for passenger injuries,

delays, and baggage loss or damage during international flights.

4. What is the role of IATA in air transport?

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) focuses on operational

efficiency, passenger services, and the standardization of airline practices.

5. What is CORSIA?

CORSIA (Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation)

is an ICAO initiative to mitigate CO₂ emissions from international aviation.

6. What does Annex 17 of ICAO address?

Annex 17 addresses aviation security, focusing on safeguarding civil aviation

against unlawful interference.

7. What is an Open Skies Agreement?

Open Skies Agreements are bilateral or multilateral treaties that liberalize air
transport by removing restrictions on routes, capacities, and pricing.
8. What is the significance of FIRs in air transport?

Flight Information Regions (FIRs) define specific airspace areas managed by

air traffic control to ensure safe navigation and coordination.

9. What is the purpose of the Warsaw Convention?

The Warsaw Convention (1929) regulates liability for international air

transportation and predates the Montreal Convention.

10. What is the Single European Sky (SES)?

The SES is an EU initiative to integrate and harmonize air traffic management

across Europe for greater efficiency.

Q.1. What is a Fare Basis Code?

A Fare Basis Code is an alphanumeric identifier that specifies the rules and
restrictions associated with a fare.

Q.2. What is the difference between a stopover and a layover?

●Stopover: A break of more than 24 hours (international) or 4 hours

(domestic).

●Layover: A shorter connection between flights.

Q.3. What is Maximum Permitted Mileage (MPM) and Extra Mileage

Allowance (EMA)?

MPM: The maximum allowable distance for a specific fare.

EMA: An allowance for exceeding the MPM, often with additional charges.

Q.4. What is an e-ticket?

An electronic ticket stored digitally, used in place of a paper ticket.

Q.5. What is a round-trip fare?

A fare covering travel from an origin to a destination and back to the origin.
1. What is the primary purpose of tariff manuals in airfares and ticketing?

Tariff manuals provide detailed information on fares, routing, conditions and

rules for calculating and issuing tickets.

2. Name two key sections of a tariff manual?

Fare Tables and Routing Information.

3. What is included in the fare rules section of a tariff manual?

Conditions like minimum/maximum stay, change and refund policies and

advance purchase requirements.

4. What is a Mileage Table in tariff manuals?

A table listing distances between city pairs to calculate mileage-based fares

and determine the maximum permitted mileage (MPM).

5. What does MPM stand for, and why is it important?

MPM stands for Maximum Permitted Mileage. It ensures that the route
taken does not exceed the allowed distance for a given fare.

6. How are fare tables typically organized in tariff manuals?

By geographic regions, city pairs, or zones.

7. What is the role of routing information in a tariff manual?

It defines the allowable routes, connections, and stopovers for specific fares.

8. What is the purpose of currency conversion tables in a tariff manual?

To convert fare amounts into the applicable local currency using defined
exchange rates.

9. Why are special fares included in tariff manuals?

To provide details on discounted or promotional fares, such as student or

group fares, and their associated rules.
10. What is an Air Waybill (AWB), and is it included in tariff manuals?

An AWB is a document for tracking air cargo, not typically included in

passenger fare tariff manuals but relevant for cargo manuals.

Q.1. What is a Fare Basis Code?

A Fare Basis Code is a combination of letters and numbers that identifies the
fare type, class, and associated rules (e.g., Y26 for Economy Class).

Q. 2. Define the term "e-ticket."?

An e-ticket (electronic ticket) is a digital version of a travel ticket stored in an

airline’s system and linked to the passenger's reservation.

Q. 3. What is Maximum Permitted Mileage (MPM)?

MPM is the maximum allowable distance between origin and destination for
a specific fare.

Q. 4. What is a stopover?

A stopover is a scheduled break in the journey at an intermediate city, lasting

more than 24 hours for international flights or more than 4 hours for
domestic flights.

Q. 5. What is the difference between a refundable and a non-refundable

ticket?

Refundable tickets allow a full or partial refund upon cancellation, while non-
refundable tickets do not offer refunds, although some taxes or fees may be
reimbursed.

Q. 6. What does PNR stand for in airfares and ticketing?

PNR stands for Passenger Name Record, which contains the details of a
passenger’s reservation.

Q. 7. What is the purpose of a Global Distribution System (GDS)?

A GDS facilitates the search, booking, and issuance of tickets, providing

access to airline schedules and fares.
Q. 8. What is a round-trip fare?

A fare that covers travel from the origin to the destination and back to the
origin.

Q. 9. Explain the term "Blackout Dates?

Blackout dates are specific periods, often during peak travel seasons, when
certain fares or promotions are not valid.

10. What is a Layover?

A layover is a short connection between flights, typically lasting less than 24

hours for international journeys.

@@ Long Questions @@

Q.1. Explain the difference between IATA and ICAO codes for airlines?

IATA Codes: 2-character codes assigned to airlines for commercial use, such
as ticketing, baggage handling, and passenger reservations. Example: AI for
Air India.

ICAO Codes: 3-character codes used for operational purposes, such as flight
planning and air traffic control. Example: AIC for Air India.

Q.2. What is the purpose of airline abbreviations, and how are they used in
air transport?

Purpose:

●To standardize airline, airport, and flight operations globally.

●Ensure clear communication across airlines, airports, and regulatory

authorities.

Usage:

●IATA codes are used for passenger services, like baggage tagging and flight
booking.

●ICAO codes are used in flight operations, air traffic control, and flight
tracking.
Q.3. How are abbreviations like PAX, ETD, and ETA used in airline operations?

●PAX (Passengers): Refers to the number of passengers on board or booked

for a flight.

●ETD (Estimated Time of Departure): Indicates the predicted departure time

of a flight.

●ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival): Provides the predicted arrival time at the
destination airport.

Q. 4. List and explain common airline abbreviations used in cargo operations?

●AWB (Air Waybill): A unique 11-digit number used to track cargo shipments.

●ULD (Unit Load Device): A container or pallet used to consolidate cargo for
transport.

●RTK (Revenue Ton Kilometer): A metric used to calculate cargo revenue

based on weight and distance flown.

●FTK (Freight Ton Kilometer): Measures the volume of cargo transported per
kilometer.

Q.5. Discuss the significance of MEL and MTOW abbreviations in airline

operations.

MEL (Minimum Equipment List):

●A list specifying the equipment that must be operational for the aircraft to
be considered airworthy.

●Ensures safety while allowing limited operations when non-critical

equipment is inoperative.

MTOW (Maximum Take-off Weight):

●The maximum weight at which an aircraft is certified to take off.

●Critical for flight planning to ensure safety and compliance with

performance limits.
Q. 6. What are the common airline abbreviations related to flight operations,
and how do they ensure smooth coordination?

CRM (Crew Resource Management): A training method for improving

communication and teamwork among flight crews.

FMC (Flight Management Computer): Automates navigation and flight plan

execution.

TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System): Alerts pilots to potential mid-air

collisions.

These abbreviations and systems streamline operations, ensuring safety and

efficiency in flight.

Q.7. Why are abbreviations like LCC, FSC, and ULCC important for
categorizing airlines?

LCC (Low-Cost Carrier): Airlines offering budget-friendly services with limited

frills (e.g., Ryanair).

FSC (Full-Service Carrier): Airlines providing premium services, including in-

flight meals and multiple travel classes (e.g., British Airways).

ULCC (Ultra-Low-Cost Carrier): Airlines operating with minimal costs and

charging extra for most services (e.g., Spirit Airlines).These abbreviations
help classify airlines based on their business models and target audiences.

Q. 8. A flight ticket displays "AI102" and "ETD 10:30." Decode the meaning?

●AI102: Air India flight 102.

●ETD 10:30: Estimated Time of Departure is 10:30.

Q.9. How do IATA codes simplify passenger travel and airline operations?

IATA codes streamline booking, baggage handling, and flight scheduling by

providing standardized identifiers for airlines and airports. For example:

●A passenger flying on "AI102" knows it is Air India's flight.

●Baggage tagged with "DEL" (Delhi) ensures it is routed to the correct

destination.
Q. 1. Explain the different types of baggage in air transport?

●Checked Baggage: stored in the aircraft's cargo hold, with weight and size
limits set by the airline.

●Carry-On Baggage: Brought into the cabin, typically limited to 7–10 kg.

●Special Baggage: Includes oversized items, sports equipment, and musical

instruments, often requiring additional fees.

●Prohibited Items: Sharp objects, liquids over 100 ml (in carry-on), and
dangerous goods.

Q. 2. What is the baggage handling process at airports?

●Check-In: Passengers hand over luggage at the counter or self-service

kiosks.

●Security Screening: Luggage undergoes X-ray or other scanning for

prohibited items.

●Sorting: Automated systems direct baggage to the correct aircraft.

●Loading: Baggage is loaded into the aircraft cargo hold.

●Arrival and Claim: Luggage is unloaded, sent to the terminal, and delivered
to passengers via baggage carousels.

Q. 3. How do baggage tracking systems work, and what are their benefits?

●How They Work: RFID tags and barcodes are attached to luggage, enabling
real-time tracking throughout the journey.

●Benefits:

⮚Reduces incidents of lost or delayed baggage.

⮚Provides passengers with real-time updates via mobile apps.

⮚Enhances operational efficiency for airlines.

Q. 4. Discuss the challenges of baggage handling and their solutions?

●Challenges:
⮚Lost Baggage: Misrouted or untraceable luggage.

⮚Delayed Deliveries: Short connection times may cause delays.

⮚Damage: Luggage may be damaged during transit.

●Solutions:

⮚Implementing RFID tracking for accurate routing.

⮚Enhancing baggage handling systems with automation.

⮚Clear communication with passengers regarding policies.

Q. 5. What are the common baggage policies and fees applied by airlines?

●Free Allowances:

⮚Economy Class: Typically 15–30 kg for checked baggage.

⮚Business/First Class: 30–50 kg with additional carry-on privileges.

●Excess Baggage Fees:

⮚Charges for overweight or oversized luggage vary by airline and

destination.

●Special Baggage Fees:

⮚Additional charges for sports equipment, musical instruments, and pets.

Q. 6. How do automated baggage handling systems improve efficiency?

●Features:

⮚Use conveyors, robots, and sensors to sort and transport luggage.

⮚RFID technology tracks baggage in real-time.

●Benefits:

⮚Speeds up the handling process and reduces human error.

⮚Minimizes incidents of lost or delayed baggage.

⮚Improves passenger satisfaction and operational efficiency.

Q. 7. Discuss the role of priority baggage in enhancing passenger satisfaction?

●Definition: Priority baggage is given expedited handling and is often

delivered first at the destination.

●Target Passengers: Premium-class travellers and frequent flyers.

●Benefits:

⮚Reduces waiting times at baggage claim.

⮚Enhances the travel experience for high-value passengers.

Q. 8. Explain the measures taken to ensure baggage security in air transport?

●Screening:

⮚Checked baggage undergoes X-ray and manual inspections.

⮚Advanced technologies like CT scans detect prohibited items.

●Tagging and Reconciliation: Baggage tags link each item to its respective
passenger, preventing unauthorized loading.

●Tamper-Proof Bags: Used for high-value or duty-free items.

●Baggage Matching: Ensures that no baggage is loaded without its passenger

onboard.

Q. 9. How do airlines handle baggage for passengers with special needs?

●Assistance: Special provisions for medical equipment, wheelchairs, and

mobility aids.

●Priority Handling: Ensures quick delivery of necessary items like wheelchairs

at arrival gates.

●Pre-Booking: Encourages passengers to notify airlines in advance for

specialized handling.
Q. 10. What are the future trends in baggage handling systems?

●Smart Baggage: GPS-enabled luggage providing real-time location updates.

●Contactless Baggage Drop: Fully automated kiosks to reduce human

interaction.

●Blockchain Technology:

●Enhances transparency and security in baggage tracking.

●AI Integration: Predicts bottlenecks and optimizes handling processes.

●Sustainability: Use of eco-friendly materials and energy-efficient systems in

baggage operations.

Q. 1. Explain the role of the Chicago Convention in the development of

international air transport regulations?

●Adopted in 1944, the Chicago Convention established the foundation for

international civil aviation.

●Key outcomes:

⮚Recognized each state's sovereignty over its airspace.

⮚Created ICAO to oversee global aviation standards.

⮚Established principles for aircraft registration, air traffic rights, and safety
regulations.

●The convention promotes cooperation between member states to ensure

safe, secure, and efficient air transport.

Q. 2. What are the key provisions of the Montreal Convention (1999)?

●Liability for Passenger Injury or Death: Airlines are liable for damages up to
a defined limit without proof of negligence.

●Baggage Issues: Provides compensation for delayed, lost, or damaged

baggage.

●Flight Delays: Passengers can claim compensation for significant delays.

●Unification of Rules: Replaces fragmented liability regimes with a consistent
framework for international flights.

Q. 3. How does ICAO ensure global aviation safety and efficiency?

●ICAO develops Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) in 19

annexes, addressing areas like:

⮚Annex 6: Aircraft operations and safety.

⮚Annex 17: Aviation security measures.

●Conducts safety audits through the Universal Safety Oversight Audit

Programme (USOAP).

●Promotes technological advancements, such as Performance-Based

Navigation (PBN), for efficient air traffic management.

Q. 4. Discuss the environmental regulations established by ICAO?

●Annex 16: Sets standards for aircraft noise and emissions.

●CORSIA: A global framework for offsetting and reducing CO₂ emissions from
international aviation.

●Encourages adoption of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs).

●Supports technological advancements for eco-friendly aircraft.

Q. 5.How do bilateral air service agreements (BASAs) regulate international

air transport?

●BASAs are treaties between two countries that define:

⮚Market access for airlines (routes, capacities, and frequencies).

⮚Pricing and fair competition rules.

●Example: An agreement between India and the USA allows designated

airlines to operate flights between the two countries.
Q. 6. Explain the role of IATA in air transport operations?

●Passenger Services: Develops global standards for ticketing, baggage

handling, and customer service.

●Operational Efficiency: Publishes the Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR)

for safe transport of hazardous materials.

●Advocacy: Represents airlines on issues like Open Skies Agreements and

environmental sustainability.

●Sustainability: Works toward achieving net-zero carbon emissions in

aviation by 2050.

Q. 7. What is the importance of Annex 17 in ensuring aviation security?

●Annex 17 outlines measures to protect civil aviation from unlawful

interference:

⮚Screening of passengers, baggage, and cargo.

⮚Access control to restricted airport areas.

⮚Emergency response planning for security incidents.

●Encourages collaboration between states to combat emerging threats like

cyberattacks.

Q. 8. Discuss the liability framework under the Warsaw and Montreal

Conventions?

●Warsaw Convention (1929):

⮚Established limits on airline liability for passenger injuries and baggage

issues.

⮚Required airlines to issue tickets and baggage receipts.

●Montreal Convention (1999):

⮚Updated liability limits to reflect inflation.

⮚Simplified claims procedures and introduced uniform rules for
international air travel.

●Impact: The Montreal Convention offers a modern, passenger-friendly

framework.

Q. 9. What are Open Skies Agreements, and how do they benefit

international aviation?

●Open Skies Agreements liberalize air transport by removing restrictions on

routes, capacity, and pricing.

●Benefits:

⮚Promotes competition, leading to lower fares and better service.⮚

Increases connectivity and trade between countries.

●Example: The USA and EU have Open Skies Agreements enabling seamless
transatlantic travel.

Q. 10. How does the Single European Sky (SES) initiative improve air traffic
management?

Goals:

●Integrate fragmented airspace into a unified system.

●Reduce delays, fuel consumption, and emissions.

Technological Innovations: Deploys advanced air traffic management tools

like centralized flight data systems.

Impact: Improves efficiency, safety, and sustainability in European aviation.

Q.1. Explain the components of fare construction and how they affect ticket
pricing?

●Base Fare: The initial cost of the ticket before taxes and fees.

●Add-Ons: Charges for stopovers, connecting flights, or additional segments.

●Surcharges: Fees like fuel surcharges or peak season charges.

●Currency Conversion: Applies when fares need to be calculated in a local
currency.

These components ensure accurate fare calculation and help passengers

understand the ticket price breakdown.

Q.2. Discuss the role of Global Distribution Systems (GDS) in airfares and
ticketing?

Functions:

●Facilitate flight bookings, seat selection, and fare calculation.

●Provide access to airline schedules and real-time pricing.

Benefits:

●Simplify fare management for travel agents and airlines.

●Enhance passenger experience by offering comprehensive travel solutions.

Examples include Amadeus, Sabre, and Galileo.

Q.3. What are the key differences between refundable and non-refundable
tickets?

Refundable Tickets:

●Higher cost, flexibility in changes and cancellations.

●Eligible for full or partial refunds.

Non-Refundable Tickets:

●Lower cost but restrictive policies.

●No refunds or significant penalties for changes.

Understanding these differences helps passengers make informed decisions.

Q.4. How do taxes and fees impact airfares?

●Taxes and fees are mandatory charges that increase the total ticket cost.

●Examples include airport taxes, security fees, and fuel surcharges.

●These fees vary by destination and are itemized on the ticket for
transparency.

Q.5.Describe the importance of routing rules in fare application?

●Routing rules ensure passengers travel along permitted routes for specific
fares.

●Key elements include stopovers, connecting cities, and carrier restrictions.

●Adherence to routing rules avoids violations and additional charges.

1.Discuss the key components of a tariff manual and their significance in

airfares and ticketing?

I. Fare Tables:

●List base fares by city pairs and fare types.

●Essential for accurate fare application.

ii. Rules and Conditions:

●Specify restrictions such as minimum stay, refunds, and change policies.

●Help ensure compliance with fare regulations.

iii. Routing Information:

●Details allowable routes and stopovers.

●Prevents unauthorized or incorrect routing.

iv. Mileage Tables: Provide distances between airports to determine fare

eligibility.

v. Currency Conversion Tables: Convert fares into local currencies.

vi. Special Fares: Address promotional rates and eligibility requirements.

Together, these components ensure seamless ticketing and accurate fare

construction.
2. Explain the process of using fare tables and routing information in tariff
manuals for fare construction?

Step 1: Identify the origin and destination city pairs in the fare table.

Step 2: Select the applicable fare class and base fare based on passenger
preferences (e.g., Economy or Business).

Step 3: Check routing information for permissible connections, stopovers and

carrier restrictions.

Step 4: Use mileage tables to ensure the route does not exceed the
Maximum Permitted Mileage (MPM).

Step 5: Apply additional fees or taxes as per rules in the manual.

3. What are the benefits of structured tariff manuals for travel agents and
airlines?

●Accuracy: Ensures correct fare application and ticket issuance.

●Efficiency: Speeds up the ticketing process with organized information.

●Compliance: Aligns with IATA and airline regulations, minimizing errors.

●Customer Service: Provides clear and transparent fare breakdowns to

passengers.

4. Describe the role of mileage tables and MPM in fare construction?

Mileage Tables: Provide sector mileage between city pairs. Used to calculate
the distance-based fare for itineraries.

Maximum Permitted Mileage (MPM): Ensures the total distance travelled

does not exceed the limit for a given fare.

Significance: Prevents fare violations and ensures compliance with routing

rules.
5. How are rules and conditions arranged in tariff manuals, and why are they
important?

●Arrangement: Organized by fare type and include details like refundability,

change fees, and eligibility criteria.

●Importance: Ensures passengers understand restrictions.

●Helps travel agents advise passengers accurately and avoid penalties.

6. Discuss how currency conversion tables in tariff manuals simplify

international fare management?

Purpose: Provide exchange rates for converting base fares into local
currencies.

Usage: Ensures fare accuracy in global markets.

Impact: Avoids currency discrepancies and ensures compliance with

international pricing standards.

7. What challenges might travel agents face while using tariff manuals, and
how can they be addressed?

Challenges:

●Complexity of rules for multi-leg itineraries.

●Frequent updates to fares and regulations.

●Difficulty navigating manual-based systems.

Solutions:

●Use digital systems like ATPCO for real-time fare updates.

●Attend training programs to understand fare construction.

●Refer to cross-referenced indexes for faster navigation.

8. How do special fares in tariff manuals benefit different passenger groups?

Types of Special Fares: Discounts for students, seniors, and groups.

Promotional fares for specific routes or seasons.
Benefits: Increase affordability for target groups. Encourage bookings during
low-demand periods.

Impact: Boosts airline revenue and passenger satisfaction.

9. How do digital tariff manuals improve upon traditional paper-based

manuals?

Advantages:

●Real-time updates ensure accuracy.

●Easier search functionality through keyword indexing.

●Integration with ticketing systems for seamless fare application.

Example: Digital platforms like ATPCO streamline fare management, reducing

manual errors.

10. Why is it important to include taxes and fees in the tariff manual, and
how are they applied?

Importance:

●Ensures full transparency of the total ticket cost.

●Helps avoid disputes over hidden charges.

Application:

●Taxes and fees are listed separately in ticket breakdowns.

●Examples include airport taxes, fuel surcharges, and security fees.

Impact: Provides passengers with clear cost visibility.

Q.1.Discuss the components of a fare structure and their significance in ticket

pricing?

●Base Fare: The starting price of the ticket, excluding additional charges.

●Taxes and Fees: Mandatory charges like airport taxes, fuel surcharges, and
security fees.
●Surcharges: Extra costs for peak travel periods or additional services.

●Add-Ons: Charges for stopovers, connections, or special services.

●Significance: These components ensure a transparent breakdown of ticket

costs for passengers and compliance with airline pricing policies.

Q.2.Explain the difference between stopovers and layovers in air travel?

oStopover:

▪A planned break at an intermediate airport lasting more than 24 hours

(international) or more than 4 hours (domestic).

▪Example: A 2-day stop in Dubai during a flight from New York to Mumbai.

oLayover:

▪A short connection time, usually less than 24 hours.

▪Example: A 3-hour connection in Doha during a flight from London to

Bangkok.

oKey Difference:

▪Duration: Stopovers are longer, while layovers are brief.

Q. 3. How do refundable and non-refundable tickets differ in terms of

flexibility and cost?

oRefundable Tickets:

▪Higher cost but offer flexibility for changes or cancellations.

▪Allow a full or partial refund, depending on the airline's policy.

oNon-Refundable Tickets:

▪Cheaper but restrictive, with no refunds for cancellations.

▪Taxes or airport fees may still be reimbursable.

oImpact:
▪Refundable tickets are ideal for business travellers, while non-refundable
ones cater to budget-conscious passengers.

Q.4.What is the role of routing rules in airfare calculations?

Definition:

▪Routing rules define the permitted paths and intermediate points for travel
between two cities.

oKey Aspects:

▪Stopovers, connections, and maximum permitted mileage (MPM).

▪Restrictions on specific carriers or alliances.

Importance:

▪Ensures compliance with fare rules and prevents unauthorized deviations.

▪Avoids additional charges for exceeding allowed mileage or routing

violations.

Q. 5.What are the benefits of using a Global Distribution System (GDS) in

ticketing?

Functions:

▪Provides real-time access to airline schedules, fares, and availability.

▪Simplifies booking, fare calculations, and ticket issuance.

Benefits:

▪Enhances efficiency for travel agents and airlines.

▪Offers passengers seamless itinerary management.

▪Example: Systems like Amadeus, Sabre, and Galileo.

Q. 6.Describe the different types of fares and their applications?

One-Way Fare:

▪Suitable for passengers traveling to a destination without a return.

Round-Trip Fare:

▪Covers travel to a destination and back to the origin.

Circle Trip Fare:

For multiple stops that form a circular route.

Open-Jaw Fare:

Allows flexibility with different departure and return points.

Promotional Fare:

▪Limited-time discounts to boost sales.

Application:

▪These fare types cater to diverse passenger needs and travel scenarios.

Q.7 What are Maximum Permitted Mileage (MPM) and Extra Mileage
Allowance (EMA), and how do they impact fare construction?

MPM:

▪Sets the maximum allowable distance for a given fare.

▪Ensures routes adhere to fare rules.

EMA:

▪Allows additional mileage beyond the MPM, often with a surcharge.

Impact:

▪Helps standardize fare calculations and prevent unauthorized routing.

Q. 8. Explain the key elements of a Fare Basis Code and its significance?

Elements:

▪Class of service (e.g., Y for Economy, J for Business).

▪Fare type or rules (e.g., 26 for advance purchase).

▪Special conditions (e.g., promotional offers).

Significance:

▪Provides a clear understanding of fare restrictions.

▪Facilitates accurate fare application and ticketing.

Q. 9 What are the main fees and surcharges included in airfares, and why are
they necessary?

Airport Taxes:

▪Cover the use of airport facilities.

Fuel Surcharges:

▪Compensate for fluctuating fuel costs.

Security Fees:

▪Fund safety and security measures.

Importance:

▪Ensures transparency in ticket pricing and offsets operational costs.

Q. 10. How has technology, such as e-tickets and dynamic pricing,

transformed airfares and ticketing?

E-Tickets:

▪Simplify ticket issuance and storage, eliminating the need for paper tickets.

Dynamic Pricing:

▪Adjusts fares in real-time based on demand and market conditions.

Impact:

▪Improves operational efficiency and enhances the passenger experience.