10.

2 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

System specifications

This is a detailed functional and technical description of a system.

Computer parts

Connection and setup of hardware components

Formatting disks

Disk formatting is the process of preparing a hard disk drive or flexible disk medium for data storage.

In some cases, the formatting operation may also create one or more new file systems. The formatting process that
performs basic medium preparation is often referred to as "low-level formatting.

“The term "high-level formatting" most often refers to the process of generating a new file system. In certain
operating systems (e.g., Microsoft Windows), the two processes are combined and the term "format" is understood
to mean an operation in which a new disk medium is fully prepared to store files. Illustrated below are the prompts
and diagnostics printed by MS-DOS's FORMAT.COM utility as a hard drive is being formatted.

As a general rule, formatting a disk is "destructive," in that existing data (if any) is lost during the process; for high-
level formatting, some of this data might be recoverable with special tools.

Disk formatting process

Formatting a disk for use by an operating system and its applications involves three different steps.

Low-level formatting (i.e., closest to the hardware) marks the surfaces of the disks with markers indicating the start
of a recording block (typically today called sector markers) and other information like block CRC to be used later, in
normal operations, by the disk controller to read or write data. This is intended to be the permanent foundation of the
disk, and is often completed at the factory.

Partitioning creates data structures needed by the operating system. This level of formatting often includes checking
for defective tracks or defective sectors.
High-level formatting creates the file system format within the structure of the intermediate-level formatting. This
formatting includes the data structures used by the OS to identify the logical drive or partition's contents). This may
occur during operating system installation, or when adding a new disk. Disk and distributed file system may specify
an optional boot block, and/or various volume and directory information for the operating system.

8.1.3 Partitioning

Disk Partitioning is the process of writing information into blocks of a storage device or medium that allows access
by an operating system. Some operating systems allow the device (or its medium) to appear as multiple devices; that
is partitioned into multiple devices.

On MS-DOS, Windows, and UNIX-based operating systems (such as BSD, Linux/GNU, OS X) this is normally
done with a partition editor, such as fdisk, parted, and Disk Utility. These operating systems support multiple
partitions.

8.2 SYSTEM INSTALLATION

Installation (or setup) of a computer program (including device drivers and plugins), is the act of making the
program ready for execution. Because the process varies for each program and each computer, programs (including
operating systems) often come with an installer, a specialized program responsible for doing whatever is needed for
their installation.

Types of system installation

Attended installation

This is the most common form of installation. An installation process usually needs a user who attends it to make
choices, such as accepting or declining an end-user license agreement (EULA), specifying preferences such as the
installation location, supplying passwords or assisting in product activation. In graphical environments, installers
that offer a wizard-based interface are common. Attended installers may ask users to help mitigate the errors. For
instance, if the disk in which the computer program is be installed was full, the installer may ask the user to specify
another target path.

Silent installation

This is Installation that does not display messages or windows during its progress. "Silent installation" is not the
same as "unattended installation": All silent installations are unattended but not all unattended installations are
silent. The reason behind a silent installation may be convenience or subterfuge. Malware is always installed
silently.

Unattended installation

This is Installation that is performed without user interaction during its progress or with no user present at all. An
unattended installation either does not require the user to supply anything or has received all necessary input prior to
the start of installation. Such input may be in the form of command line switches or an answer file, a file that
contains all the necessary parameters. Windows XP is an example of an operating system that can be installed with
an answer file. In unattended installation, it is assumed that there is no user to help mitigate errors. For instance, if
the installation medium was faulty, the installer should fail the installation, as there is no user to fix the fault or
replace the medium. Unattended installers may record errors in a computer log for later review.

Headless installation

Installation performed without using a computer monitor connected. In attended forms of headless installation,
another machine connects to the target machine (for instance, via a local area network) and takes over the display
output. Since a headless installation does not need a user at the location of the target computer, unattended headless
installers may be used to install computer software on multiple machines at the same time.
Scheduled or automated installation

An installation process that runs on a preset time or when a predefined condition transpires, as opposed to an
installation process that starts explicitly on a user's command. For instance, a system administrator willing to install
a later version of a computer program that is being used can schedule that installation to occur when that program is
not running. An operating system may automatically install a device driver for a device that the user connects.
Malware may also be installed automatically. For example, the infamous Conficker was installed when the user
plugged an infected device to his computer.

Clean installation

A clean installation is one that is done in the absence of any interfering elements such as old versions of the
computer program being installed or leftovers from a previous installation. In particular, the clean installation of an
operating system is an installation in which the target disk partition is erased before installation. Since the interfering
elements are absent, a clean installation may succeed where an unclean installation may fail or may take
significantly longer.

Network installation

This is an installation of a program from a shared network resource. This may simply be a copy of the original
media but software publishers which offer site licenses for institutional customers may provide a version intended
for installation over a network.

Installing operating systems

The process of installing up and operating system below using Windows 7 uses Clean Installation method.

System Requirements:

Before installing Windows 7 on your computer, ensure that your computer has:

1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor

1 gigabyte (GB) RAM (32-bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit)

16 GB available hard disk space (32-bit) or 20 GB (64-bit)

DirectX 9 graphics device with WDDM 1.0 or higher driver

Clean Installation Instructions:

Insert the Windows 7 setup DVD into the disk drive. The Windows setup will automatically start the installation. If
your computer does not start with the Windows 7 Setup DVD, then make the required changes in your BIOS and
make your CD/DVD drive the primary boot device.
Select the language that you want to use during the installation process.

 Next, click the Install Now button to initiate the installation. The Setup transfers some temporary files from the
DVD to your computer. The Please read the license terms page appears. Select the I accept the license terms check
box.

Select the Custom (advanced) install option.

Select the hard disk drive or partition on which you want to install Windows 7.

Setup copies the program files to your system.

 Toward the end of the installation process, your system restarts several times, and then Setup updates the registry
settings. Next, Windows prompts you to perform some post-installation tasks, like selecting the user name and the
computer name.

Set the system password for your user account and enter a hint for the password.
Type the activation key.
Set the date and time.
Select the appropriate network settings and create a group depending on the type of Network you have chosen.
Your Windows 7 installation is ready for use.

Installing Application and Utility Software

Uninstalling software

Installing device drivers

10.4 Computer Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a series of logical steps efficiently followed to solve a computer problem.

The troubleshooting process

The cycle starts with identifying the problem. Then, information must be gathered to define the causes. Next, a
solution is developed and implemented. Finally, the solution is verified. If the problem is resolved, the
troubleshooting cycle ends with documenting the solution. If the problem is not resolved the cycle starts over and
the process repeats until a solution is found.

Identify the problem

This includes defining the general symptoms so the possible causes can be determined. The outcome is a detailed
statement that clearly describes the problem. Without a clear understanding of the problem, the technician cannot
gather the necessary information to develop an appropriate solution.

Gathering information
Once the problem has been identified, the next step is to gather information so a solution can be developed. Fast and
efficient troubleshooting involves gathering the correct information to develop an accurate solution. Computer
problems can range from simple to extremely complex.

However, computer problems can become increasingly complicated if the technician does not have the correct
information.

The technician needs to know how to properly question the end user. The following is a list of typical questions that
the technician will need to ask:

Can the error be described? Document the description of the problem.

Was an error message received? Computers are manufactured with self-diagnostic tools. If the computer fails one of
the self-diagnostics tests, it will typically generate an error message.

Ask the end user to recall the error message or recreate it. In the case of a power-on-self-test (POST) error, ask the
customer for the number of beeps heard.

Has the problem or error occurred before? Try to establish a timeline for the event. A timeline will help identify
potential causes of the event. If the problem has happened before, document the changes that were made to the
system.

Have there been any changes to the system? Identify recent changes to the hardware or software. Changes made in
an attempt to correct previous problems can be the source of the current problem. Also, adding or removing
hardware and software can create unforeseen problems with system resources.

Can the error be reproduced? Reproducing the problem will allow the end user to describe the error exactly. An
onsite technician can then see and experience the problem firsthand.

Developing a solution

Creating a solution is the third step in the troubleshooting process. The technician will assess the gathered data. The
technician will use experience, logic, reasoning, and common sense to develop a solution. Sometimes, the initial
diagnosis will prove unsuccessful and the strategy will have to be revised. Troubleshooting is an acquired skill that
will improve with time and experience.

Implementing the solution

The fourth step in the troubleshooting cycle is implementing the solution. Essentially, this step involves the
technician working on the computer. The technician attempts the solution through hands-on manipulation of the
computer components, which might be hardware and software. There are a number of things to remember when
implementing a solution to a problem:

Always backup critical data before making any changes that have the potential to corrupt data stored on the
computer.

Always start with the simple things first.

Change only one thing at a time and double-check the effect on the computer.

Reverse any changes that make the problem worse or cause any further harm to the system.

Is the problem solved?

Verifying that the problem is solved is step five in the troubleshooting cycle. After the solution has been
implemented, the technician can run diagnostic tests, visually inspect, and listen to the system to verify that the
problem is solved. Then, the technician must verify that the end user is satisfied with the results.

If the system is operating properly, then the troubleshooting cycle ends successfully. If the system is not operating
correctly, the technician will be required to undo any changes made to the system and return to the beginning of the
troubleshooting cycle. If more information is needed, the technician should return to problem identification in step
one.

Documenting the solution

Documenting is the final step of the troubleshooting process. It is important to document all the changes that were
introduced to the system as a result of solving the problem. This record can be the starting point for troubleshooting
future problems. The documentation can also eliminate an entire set of suspect problems.

Documentation over time tracks all the changes or modifications made to a system. Future problems with the system
can be diagnosed easier by a different technician. Records of previous repairs are invaluable troubleshooting tools
and will educate the technician on the previous state of the machine.

Troubleshooting tools

In order to correctly troubleshoot hardware problems, technicians will need to be equipped with the right tools.
Technicians should be prepared for a wide range of circumstances and take tools with them to remote locations. The
tools in a toolset should include both mechanical and digital tools.

TRENDS IN COMPUTING

This topic when presented to learners brings awareness on how to understand and appreciate contemporary issues of
computer development.

Here the author discusses issues related to: Computer Integrity and Security, Computer ethics, Computer and
society, Emerging technologies, System Analysis and Computer professions.

15.1 COMPUTER SECURITY RISK

A Computer Security is measures taken to provide a sense of protection against loss, attack, or harm.

A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to computer hardware, software,
data, or information.

Some breaches to computer security are accidental, but some are planned.

COMPUTER CRIME

Any illegal act involving a computer for personal gain is generally referred to as a computer crime.

Examples of computer crime are:

Computer virus attack

Hacking

Software piracy

Spamming other users

Cracking software without permission

Trespass

Replacing computer parts without permission

Carrying out fraud activities

Using a computer to bear false witness

Carrying out cyber terrorism

Harassing other users using computer e.g. through social network like Facebook.

Working as online predator

Using computer to carry out drug trafficking

Obscene or offensive content.

Cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts.

Some of the more common computer security risks include

Computer viruses

A virus is a program that copies itself into other programs and spreads through multiple computers.

Viruses are often designed to affect, or infect, a computer negatively by altering the way it normally works without
the knowledge or permission of the owner.

A boot sector virus executes when a computer starts up because it resides in the boot sector of a floppy disk or the
master boot record of a hard disk.

A file virus attaches itself to program files, and is loaded into memory when the infected program is run.

A macro virus uses the macro language of an application (e.g., word processor or spreadsheet) to hide the virus
code.

A logic bomb is a virus that activates when it detects a certain condition.

A time bomb is a kind of logic bomb that activates on a particular date.

A worm copies itself repeatedly in memory or on a disk drive until no memory or disk space remains, which makes
the computer stops working.
A Trojan horse is a program that hides within or looks like a legitimate program, but executes when a certain
condition or action is triggered.

A polymorphic virus modifies its program code each time it attaches itself to another program or file, so that even
an antivirus utility has difficulty in detecting it

The spread of computer viruses is accelerated by the increased use of networks, Internet, and e-mail.

Viruses are activated in three basic ways:

Opening an infected file

Running an infected program

Starting up the computer with an infected floppy disk

Precautions to prevent virus infection

Precautions taken to prevent virus infection include:

Ensure that the e-mail is from a trusted source before opening or executing any e-mail attachment.

Install an antivirus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for detecting and removing viruses.

Never start up a computer with a floppy disk in the floppy drive.

Scan all floppy disks and files for possible virus infection before opening them.

Set the security level for macros in an application so that the user can choose whether or not to run potentially
unsafe macros.

Write-protect the recovery disk before using it.

Back up important files regularly.

Unauthorized access and use of computer systems

Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission.

A cracker, or hacker, is someone who tries to access a computer or network illegally.

Some hackers break into a computer for the challenge. However, others use or steal computer resources or corrupt a
computer's data.

Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or possibly illegal activities.

Examples of unauthorized use of computers include

An employee using a company computer to send personal e-mail.

Someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing an unauthorized transfer.

One way to prevent unauthorized access and unauthorized use of computers is to utilize access controls.

Hardware theft and software theft

Hardware theft is the act of stealing computer equipment.

The act of defacing or destroying computer equipment is known as hardware vandalism.

Precautions to prevent hardware theft include

Use physical access controls, such as locked doors, and windows.

Use cables to lock the equipment to desk, cabinet, or floor.

Install alarm systems for additional security.

Never leave a notebook computer or handheld computer unattended in a public place.

Use passwords, possessed objects, and biometrics as a method of security.

Back up all the files stored on the computer regularly.

Two common forms of software theft are

physically stealing media (e.g., floppy disk, or CD-ROM) that contains software and

Software piracy, which is the most common form of software theft.

Software piracy refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.

Software piracy is the most common form of software theft.

Purchasing software only provides a consumer with a license agreement, or the right to use the software.

A single-user license agreement or end-user license agreement is the most common type of license included with
software packages purchased by individual users.

A software site license gives the buyer the right to install the software on multiple computers at a single site (e.g., a
school computer laboratory).

A network site license allows network users to share a single copy of the software, which resides on the network
server.

Risks of software piracy include:

Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.

No technical support for the software can be received.

Drive up the software cost for all legal users.

Information theft and information privacy

Information theft refers to someone who steals personal or confidential information from others.

Reasons for information theft include

A company wants to learn about a competitor.

An individual steals credit card numbers to make fraudulent purchases.

Preventions for information theft include:

Implement access control to computers and networks.

Use encryption techniques.

Information privacy refers to the right of individuals or organizations to deny or restrict the collection and use of
information about them.

15.2 SYSTEM FAILURE

A system failure is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can also cause hardware, software, data, or
information loss.

Common causes of system failure include

Aging hardware

Natural disaster (e.g., fires, floods, storms, or earthquakes)

Electrical power variation

Files should be backed up regularly to prevent against data loss caused by a system failure.

15.3 COMPUTERS AND HEALTH RISK

Prolonged computer usage can lead to health risks such as

Repetitive stress injury, which include tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome.

Eyestrain

Lower back pain

Muscle fatigue

Emotional fatigue

Precautions to help prevent such risks include

Pay attention to sitting posture.

Take a break to stand up, walk around, or stretch every 30 to 60 minutes.

Place the display device about an arm's length away from the eyes with the top of the screen at eye level or below.

Adjust the lighting in the room.

Ensure that the workplace is designed ergonomically.

15.4 COMPUTER ETHICS

Computer Ethics is a branch of practical philosophy which deals with how computing professionals should make
decisions regarding professional and social conduct.

Recently, however, the term “computer ethics” has acquired a broader sense that includes applied ethics, sociology
of computing, technology assessment, computer law, and related fields. This broader kind of computer ethics
examines the impact of computing and information technology upon human values, using concepts, theories and
procedures from philosophy, sociology, law, psychology, and so on.

Practitioners of the broader computer ethics – computer scientists and public policy makers all have the same goal

That is to integrate computing technology and human values in such a way that the technology advances and
protects human values, rather than doing damage to them.

Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are:

Unauthorized access and use of computer systems

Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission.

A cracker, or hacker, is someone who tries to access a computer or network illegally.

Some hackers break into a computer for the challenge. However, others use or steal computer resources or corrupt a
computer's data.

Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or possibly illegal activities.

Examples of unauthorized use of computers include

An employee using a company computer to send personal e-mail.

Someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing an unauthorized transfer.

One way to prevent unauthorized access and unauthorized use of computers is to utilize access controls.
Software piracy

Software piracy refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.

Software piracy is the most common form of software theft.

Purchasing software only provides a consumer with a license agreement, or the right to use the software.

A single-user license agreement or end-user license agreement is the most common type of license included with
software packages purchased by individual users.

A software site license gives the buyer the right to install the software on multiple computers at a single site (e.g., a
school computer laboratory).

A network site license allows network users to share a single copy of the software, which resides on the network
server.

Risks of software piracy include:

Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.

No technical support for the software can be received.

Drive up the software cost for all legal users.

Information privacy

Information privacy refers to the right of individuals or organizations to deny or restrict the collection and use of
information about them.

Information accuracy

Information accuracy becomes an important issue when it is necessary to access information maintained by other
people or companies, such as that on the Internet.

Inaccurate input can result in erroneous information and incorrect decisions made based on that information.

Never assume that information provided on the Web is always correct.

The Web site providing access to the information may not be the creator of the information.

Always evaluate the content provided on a Web page before using it.

Some people also concern with using computers to alter output, particularly graphical images (e.g., retouching a
photograph).

They believe that even the slightest alteration could lead to deliberately misleading photographs.

Legal Ethical Aspects of Computer and Internet

The Internet allows consumers, businesses, and industry to do many new things in unique and efficient ways. The
technology around which it is built is also changing and advancing rapidly. A source of concern is that the legal and
ethical developments regarding the use of Computer and Internet are not able to keep up with the fast pace of
technological change. Here the discussion is focused on the main areas of legal and ethical concern that have
emerged so far, the ways in which they are being dealt with, and the implications for providers of technology related
services and products.

These major areas are:

protection of intellectual property

prevention of fraud

protection of freedom of expression versus problems of defamation

protection of privacy

control of Internet indecency versus free speech

control of spamming

Intellectual Property Protection

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creative works by inventors, authors, and artists that have economic value and
are protected by law.

Intellectual property rights are the rights to which creators are entitled for their work. The major legal and ethical
problems that arise in terms of the Internet and electronic media deal with intellectual property issues.

There are well developed laws that govern physical property. Physical property, also known as tangible property, is
property that we can touch and feel. Intellectual property, on the other hand, deals with the ownership of ideas or the
expression of ideas. Since ideas cannot be touched or felt, but they do belong to the person who developed (or
authored) them, they are known as intangible property.

There are several forms of legal protection available for intellectual property. These are:

trade secret protection

copyright protection

trademark protection

Patents.

Trade Secret Protection

This method of protecting ownership of an idea is to ensure that the idea is kept a secret. An example is the formula
used in preparing Coca Cola syrup. Very few employees know the formula, and those who do are required to sign
nondisclosure agreements in order to have access to it. The formula is safe as long as no employee divulges the
secret. The company could take them to court if they did so. Another example of a trade secret may be a company’s
business plan or strategy.
Trade secrets can only exist if the basis for the idea can be kept a secret. This may not be possible in the world of
computer technology and programming.

Copyright Protection

Copyright protection is available for an original expression of an idea that is fixed in any physical medium,
such as paper, electronic tapes, floppy discs, CD ROMs, etc. It is important to note that the "right" or protection is
given to how the idea is expressed, not to the idea itself.

To illustrate this, consider two songs, one by Britney Spears, and another by the Backstreet Boys, both of which deal
with the idea of love, but express the idea in different ways. Each can copyright the way they express their idea of
love in their songs. They cannot copyright the idea of love itself.

Works such as books, music, computer programs, source and object codes, etc. can be protected by copyright. In
addition to the actual code of a program, copyright can extend to the screen layout and graphics of the program.
Copyright extends to both published and unpublished material.

Obtaining Copyright Protection

Copyright is very simply obtained by displaying, on the first page or screen of the work, the statement "Copyright"
followed by the symbol ©, together with the year and the author’s name, or the name of the company owning the
copyright, followed by the statement "All Rights Reserved". An example of a copyright statement is:

Copyright ©1990, John W. Smith, All Rights Reserved.

The copyright to the expression of an idea begins immediately when the expression is fixed in some medium. For
example, a software program that has been developed on a monitor becomes copyrightable from the moment it
becomes saved to a disk or hard drive since it then becomes fixed in a medium.

In the case of computer programs on a chip, the copyright notice may be indicated on the chip, and sometimes a
notice may be embedded inside the chip in ASCII code (deForest, 1988).

Simply putting the copyright notice on a work gives it copyright protection. No further filing of the notice is
required. However, it is also possible, and advisable, to register the copyright with the Library of Congress
Copyright Office. Registration substantially increases the penalty (referred to sometimes as "damages") that anyone
found guilty of violating the copyright (often called "copyright piracy" or "infringement") will have to pay. In
addition, if someone violates a copyright, they cannot be sued until the copyright is registered.

Rights of Copyright Ownership

The legal rights given by copyright ownership are:

right to reproduce the work

right to make derivative works

right to distribute copies for resale, lease, or retail

right to publicly perform relevant works (e.g. a piece of music)

right to publicly display certain works

All or some of these rights can be licensed or transferred by the owner of the copyright, to others, usually for a fee or
payments known as royalties. It is illegal to use copyrighted material without a license or payment of royalties.
However, one major exception to this statement is the "Fair Use" rule.

Fair Use Rule

The Fair Use rule allows copyrighted material to be used, without a license or payment of royalty to the owner, if the
purpose of the use is criticism, news reporting, scholarship, research, or teaching (including multiple copies for
classroom use). This does not mean unrestricted use, however. Fair use is determined by several factors:

whether the use is of a commercial nature or whether it is for nonprofit educational purposes

the nature of the copyrighted work itself

the proportion of the copyrighted work that is being reproduced. If a substantial proportion is reproduced, it is
unlikely to be considered fair use. (e.g. If one article out of a book with fifteen articles in it, is copied and used in a
class it is likely to be fair use. However, copying eight to ten articles may not be considered fair use).

The effect of the use on the potential market or value of the copyrighted work (i.e. is the owner going to be
financially hurt by this use?). This point is an important one in determining fair use.

The Electronic Theft (NET) Act, signed in December, 1997, makes it criminal for individuals to reproduce or
distribute copies of copyrighted works. In order to provide for fair use, the Act allows copies to be made "if copying
does not hurt the interests of the author." Under this guideline, if a copyrighted work were to be put on the Internet
as part of a distance education program, it is not likely to be considered to be fair use since the work could be
accessed by anyone on the Internet and this is likely to hurt the author’s interests by bringing down its market
value. On the other hand, it is more likely to be considered fair use if access to the work on the web was restricted to
those enrolled in the distance learning program, perhaps by using a password.

Copying Computer Programs

In the case of a computer program, the owner of a copy of the program may legally make a copy of the program if

Making such a copy is essential to using it on a computer (e.g. copying a program from a CD to the hard drive of a
computer.), and that it is not used in any other way.

The copy is made as a backup and that the backup is destroyed if the rights to the original copy cease to exist

Two categories of software programs available on the web that do not fall into the usual category of copyrighted
material are shareware and freeware. Both categories of programs may be copied without permission. However,
the expectation regarding shareware is that the person making the copy will test the program and, if it is found to be
useful, will make a payment to the author. The process is based on an honor system so that non-payment is likely to
be more of an ethical rather than a legal problem. Freeware is available for copying and using without any payment.

Some ideas and expressions of ideas, such as freeware, are said to be in the public domain because they are owned
by the public and can be freely copied and used by them, with appropriate reference to the source. Government
publications are also in the public domain.

All intellectual property becomes part of the public domain once the intellectual property right expires.

The Copyright Law and Employee Works

When work is done for hire, the employer -- not the employee -- is the one considered the author and given
copyright ownership. Work is considered to have been done " for hire " if

The work was done by the employee as part of his or her employment or

The work was especially ordered or commissioned and there is a written agreement between the parties involved,
clearly stating that the work involved shall be considered a work for hire.

Length of Copyright Protection

Work created after January 1, 1978 is automatically protected from the moment it is fixed in some medium. This
protection exists, in such cases, for:

The life of the author plus an additional 70 years after his/her death.

70 years after the last surviving authors death, if the work had more than one author, and the work was not done for
hire.

For work done for hire, the copyright extends 95 years from publication, or 120 years from its creation, whichever is
shorter.

Works created and published before January 1, 1978, were initially copyrighted for 28 years, and could be extended
by renewal for a maximum of 95 years.

Trademarks

A trademark is a logo or phrase that identifies the source of goods or services. Trademark rights do not stop others
from copying a product, but they do prevent them from calling or labeling their product by a name or phrase that is
confusingly similar to the trademark.

Trademark protection is obtained automatically when the mark is applied to a product that is then sold. Trademark
protection is available for a mark or phrase that is not already in use by someone else. In addition, it must (1) not be
just geographically descriptive (e.g. Kampala Retail Store), (2) not be just descriptive of the type of goods (e.g. The
Soft Drink Store), (3) not be just a surname (e.g. Amaro Enterprises), and (4) not be likely to deceive others.
Trademarks can be registered with the Uganda Patent Office and this provides some legal benefits.

Names that create a false impression about a product or which might mislead others in terms of the product or the
company cannot be protected by trademark. This "likelihood of confusion" is an important factor in determining
trademark infringement.

The controversy with trademarks often relates to domain names, when some people or smaller companies purposely
acquire a domain name that uses the exact trademarked name of their competition.

Patents

A patent is a right of ownership given to a new idea for a machine, manufacture, composition of matter, or method,
or for an improvement on an existing one of any of these. The right of ownership is given for 17 years. In order to
get this right, the applicant must state the details of the idea clearly in writing and submit it to the Uganda Patent and
Trademark Office for their assessment of its uniqueness. Patents can be licensed or sold to others.
Patents can sometimes be combined with copyrights or trademarks. For example, if someone writes a computer
program that does something new, it can be copyrighted. If the program also meets the criteria for a patent because it
deals with a new method, then it may be patentable too.

Free Speech and Indecency

The Internet has become the "great equalizer" in terms of allowing individuals, regardless of background, location,
income, etc. to access and provide information and to make their views known. However, this has proved to be a
mixed blessing. The Internet has been used to propagate material that may be found offensive by many, such as
pornographic, hate and other potentially dangerous material. Since such sites may be accessed by children, there is a
general agreement by the public that there should be some means to prevent this from happening.

In terms of ISP responsibility in this regard, it is good policy to develop systems that are "family friendly" and allow
parental control over sites viewed by children.

Indecency, Children and Legislation

Several Acts by the government address or seek to address some of the concerns about children on the web (Turban
et al., 2000; p. 359). The following brief descriptions give some idea of the concerns of the public and the possible
areas regarding which ISPs need to be concerned.

The Child Online Protection Act of 1998 requires that companies verify an adult’s age before they have access to
material online that is considered "harmful to minors". It also requires parental consent before soliciting personal
information from a minor.

The Family Friendly Internet Access Act would require ISPs to offer screening software at the time of signing up
that would allow members to filter web content that children have access to.

The Internet Protection Act seeks limits on Internet regulation by the government, but also prohibits ISPs from
providing accounts to sexually violent predators.

The Internet School Filtering Act wants to use funds and grants to schools as a tool for encouraging them to install
filtering software.

Spamming or Spam Mail

Spamming involves sending e-mail messages indiscriminately and without the permission of the receiver and
disregarding the appropriateness of the message. It is the equivalent of "junk mail" sent through regular postal
services. Spamming is widespread and affects the speed of the Internet, sometimes bring it down completely. The
Electronic Mailbox Protection Act is trying to control spamming. This act requires senders of spam to identify it as
advertising, to indicate the name of the sender, and to include valid routing information. In addition, ISPs would be
required to offer spam blocking software and recipients would have the right to request that all future spam be
stopped.

15.6 CODES OF CONDUCT

A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific action is ethical or unethical.

Some of the IT Codes of Conduct

Computers may not be used to harm other people.

Users may not interfere with other's computer work.

Users may not meddle in other's computer files.

Computers may not be used to steal.

Computers may not be used to bear false witness.

Users may not copy or use software illegally.

Users may not use other's computer resources without authorization.

Users may not use other's output.

Users shall consider the social impact of programs and systems they design.

Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration and respect for other people.

15.7 COMPUTERS AND SOCIETY

15.7.1 Impact of Computers on society

Everyone knows that this is the age of computer and vast majority of people are using computer. Development of
science and technology has direct effect on our daily life as well as in our social life. Computer technology has made
communication possible from one part of the world to the other in seconds. They can see the transactions in one part
of the world while staying in the other part. Computer development is one of the greatest scientific achievements of
the 20th century. Computers are used in various fields as well as in teaching and learning. Some of the major
computer application fields are listed below.

An aid to management: The computer can also be used as a management tool to assist in solving business
problems.

Banking: Branches are equipped with terminals giving them an online accounting facility and enabling them to
information as such things as current balances, deposits, overdrafts and interest charges.

Industrial Application: In industry, production may be planned, coordinated and controlled with the aid of a
computer.

Engineering Design: Computer help in calculating that all the parts of a proposed design are satisfactory and also
assist in the designing.

Meteorology: Data is recorded at different levels of atmosphere at different places, using remote sensors carried on
a satellite.

Air Travel: Small computers are installed as a part of the plane's equipment.

Road Traffic Control: Computers assist with the control of traffic lights.

Telephones: Computerized telephone exchanges handle an ever increasing volume of calls very efficiently.
Medicine: Computers are widely used in hospitals for such task as maintaining drugs, surgical equipment’s and
linen, for payroll and also for checkup and treatment of diseases.

In addition computers are also used for recording and film studios, research, military, etc.

Computers have both positive and negative impact in our daily life as well as in our social life. But the gross
development of the nation is faster with the application of computers in industries and education. The both positive
and negative impacts of computers are listed below.

Positive Impact of Computer -

The work can be done in very less time.

More information can be stored in small space.

Multitasking and multiprocessing capabilities of data.

Easy to access data.

Impartiality.

Documents can be kept secret.

Error free result.

It can be used for various purposes that is it can be used in any type of work.

Negative Impact of Computer -

Highly expensive.

Accidents.

Data piracy.

Increased Unemployment.

Huge data and information can be lost sometimes.

Fast changing computer technology.

Service distribution.

Illiteracy of computing and computers.

As mentioned on the above list, computers have both positive and negative impact in our society. But the use of
computer is increasing day-by-day.

Questions

Give your arguments in favor and against the impact of computers in our society today.
15.8 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

In the endless quest for more powerful computers, research scientists continued to expand the frontiers of
semiconductor technology, optics, and computer architecture. In the Pentagon-sponsored VHSIC (Very High Speed
Integrated Circuits) program, semiconductor firms competed to create chips that would have the power of a
supercomputer — on a tiny sliver of silicon. Other researchers sought to lay the groundwork for a generation of 21st-
century optical computers that would use light instead of conventional electronics for computation. (Optical storage
is already a feature of the computer world; CD-ROM players, an emerging market in 1986, use the laser-based
technology familiar in the audio world — the compact disk player — to store and play back images and text.)

Developments in Hardware

Developments in Software

Development in Application of Computers