CSEC BIOLOGY

Section B: Life Processes

Objectives 9.1-9.5
9. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
 Specific Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:

9.1 Compare sexual and asexual reproduction

9.2 Describe the structure and function of human reproductive

systems

9.3 Describe the menstrual cycle

9.4 Outline the mechanism for bringing gametes together, their fusion
and development of an embryo in humans

9.5 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various birth control

methods

9.6 Discuss the transmission and control of AIDS and gonorrhoea

 What is Reproduction?

• Reproduction: Process of ensuring new individuals of the

same species are produced.

• Importance:
- No organism is immortal.
- New individuals must replace old/dying individuals.
- To continue life

Two types of reproduction:

1. Asexual 2. Sexual
 9.1 Asexual Reproduction
• One parent produces identical offspring (clones).
• No gametes (sex cells) involved.
• No variation (no differences)produced.

Examples:
1. Binary Fission e.g. bacteria, amoeba
2. Natural Vegetative Propagation e.g. Bryophyllum plant,
strawberry runners
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Bryophyllum
plant

Natural Vegetative
Propagation
(New plants form from
outgrowth of parent)

Strawberry runners

Binary Fission
(in bacteria & amoeba)
Cloning

Artificial
propagation
(Grafting/cuttings)
 9.1 Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents are involved to produce offspring with
similar but non-identical characteristics to parent.

• Involves two gametes (sperm and egg) which fuse to

form a zygote.

• Zygote divides by mitosis and develops into an embryo.

• Embryo grows into a foetus, then baby, then child, then

adolescent, then adult.
• Produces genetic variation.
Sexual Reproduction
 Asexual & Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Occurs by mitosis Gametes (sperm & egg) formed from
meiosis
Produce identical offspring. No Offspring produced have different
variation produced. characteristics.
Genetic variation is produced
No mate needed. A mate is needed. (male/female)
Rapid process , less time and energy Slower process, time and energy
consuming.
Offspring remain close to parent Offspring usually scattered over a wide
leading to increase chance of area. E.g. seeds
overcrowding. e.g. grass
Offspring well adapted to environment Some offspring may not be well
of the parent but if there is change adapted to the environment as parent
survival will be reduced. but may be able to adapt to changes.
9.2 Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System (Front View)

External genitalia:

1. Penis
2. Testicles (Testes)
in scrotum

Internal organs:
1. Vas deferens
2. Seminal vesicles
3. Prostate gland
4. Accessory gland
Co per’s gla d
Side View of the Male Reproductive System
 Male Parts & Functions
Part of Reproductive Description/Function
System
Penis connective tissue with many blood spaces; becomes erect during
arousal
Urethra muscular tube leading to the outside; carries both urine and sperm
but at separate times
Testis coiled tubules which produce sperm
Scrotum Sac hanging outside body cavity which houses testis; maintained at
slightly lower temperature to body 35°C
Epididymis Sperm matures and is stored here
Vas deferens Long tube carrying sperm to urethra during ejaculation
(Sperm duct)
Seminal vesicles glands that open into the vas deferens and secrete 70-85% of fluid
that forms semen; located beneath bladder & above prostate gland
Prostate gland secrete a slightly alkaline fluid, milky in appearance, that usually
constitutes ~ 30% of the volume of semen
Accessory Secretes 5% of fluid added to semen
gla d/Cowper’s gla d
 How Sperm is Made

• Sperm is manufactured in the

testes.
• Testes found in scrotum outside of
body.
• Sperm are sensitive to heat.
• Testes made up of coiled tubules
(seminiferous tubules)
• Sperm develops from cells in the
walls of the tubules.
• Meiosis cell division produces
sperm.
9.2 Female Reproductive System

External genitalia:

1. Vulva
2. Clitoris
3. Labia minora &
majora

Internal organs:
1. Ovaries
2. Oviducts
3. Uterus
4. Cervix
5. Vagina
Female Reproductive System (Internal View)
Side View of the Female Reproductive System
 Female Parts & Functions
Part of Reproductive Description/Function
System
Vagina the entrance/exit of the reproductive system;
receives penis during intercourse; passage for
baby at birth
Cervix ring of muscle around neck of uterus; produces
fluid that aids sperm survival and motility; dilates
during childbirth
Uterus (womb) muscular pear-shaped organ where a fertilized
ovum is implanted; lining shed during
menstruation
Fallopian tubes tubes carrying ova (eggs) from ovaries
(oviduct)
Ovaries Contain many follicles that produce ova & sex
hormones oestrogen and progesterone
 The Structure of the Ovary

Different stages of follicle and egg development

 How Eggs are Made
• Eggs (ova) are made in the ovary.

• Made from cells in the outside

layer (epithelium) of ovary.

•A small space with a cell forms

(Follicle)

•At puberty, follicle grows & moves

to edge of ovary. (Graafian follicle)

•Cell inside undergoes meiosis.

•Only 1 cell becomes the egg.

  Interesting Facts About
Human Reproductive Systems

• Contain the smallest and largest cells of the body ( sperm

and eggs)
• Human testes can produce 10 million sperm cells daily.
• Sperm life (development to ejaculation) is ~ 2 1/2 months
• A circumcised male is less likely to contract HIV and some
other STDs.
• The vagina is acidic (low pH) to allow beneficial/protective
bacteria to thrive.
• The average depth of a vagina is 3-6 inches long while the
average penis length is 6 inches.
• The uterus expands 500 times during pregnancy.
• Females are born with millions of immature egg cells but
only about 400 develop and mature.
Compare Human Reproductive Systems
 9.3 The Menstrual Cycle
Cycle of natural changes occurring in the uterus and ovaries of the
female in preparation for fertilization and pregnancy

The average cycle is 28 days and includes:

Ovulation: the release of a mature egg from the ovary (day 14)
Menstruation: the shedding of the uterus lining & blood (day 28)

• The cycle is controlled by the following hormones:

1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone, FSH (secreted by pituitary gland)
2. Luteinizing Hormone, LH (secreted by pituitary gland)
3. Oestrogen (secreted by Graafian follicle)
4. Progesterone (secreted by corpus luteum)
Stages of Menstrual Cycle
 Ovulation (day 14)
• The process of releasing an egg from the ovary.
• Occurs between days 12-16 of menstrual cycle.
• Stimulated by luteinizing hormone.
• Developing egg within follicle migrates to ovary
surface.
• When mature, it is released from the Graafian follicle
which breaks open to pass egg into oviduct.
• An empty follicle is then called a corpus luteum.
Menstruation (day 0-5)
• Breakdown and shedding of
uterus lining
• Occurs 14 days after egg has
been released but not fertilized
• Generally lasts for about 5 days
(average)
• Commonly referred to as your
period .
• Average age for females to get
their period around 13yrs old.
• Tampons and sanitary napkins
(pads)required to collect blood
discharge.
 Hormonal Control of The Menstrual Cycle
• The hypothalamus (*) and the pituitary gland (#) work together to control
hormonal production.
Hormones Functions

*Gonadotrophin-releasing Stimulates production of two gonadotrophins from

hormone (GnRH) pituitary gland:
1)Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
2)Luteinizing hormone (LH)

# FSH Stimulates development of follicles in ovaries and

production of oestrogen.
# LH Targets ovary to stimulate ovulation; after ovulation it
promotes development of corpus luteum
Oestrogen Produced by follicular cells of ovary; targets uterus
(for thickening of lining) & pituitary gland (inhibits
FSH secretion)
Progesterone Produced by corpus luteum; Same target as
oestrogen; maintains thick uterus lining; causes rise
of body temperature
The Menstrual Cycle
Hormones and the Menstrual Cycle

Changes occurring
in ovaries and
uterus lining

Hormones released
Oestrogen
Progesterone
FSH- Follicle stimulating
hormone
LH- Luteinizing hormone

Time(Days)
 9.4 Steps In Sexual Reproduction
1. Copulation (intercourse)

2. Fertilization (fusion of gametes)

3. Growth and development of embryo (pregnancy)

4. Birth (delivery of baby)

 1. Copulation
• The male reproductive organ (penis) enters the female
reproductive organ (vagina) during sexual intercourse.

• The erect penis ejaculates semen in the entrance of the vagina

and the sperm swim upwards to the fallopian tubes.
• Required to bring male and female gametes together.

Oviduct

Ovary
Testis
Uterus

Penis
 Structure of Gametes

Male gamete- Sperm Female gamete- Ovum (egg)

 How Sperm Reaches the Egg
Sperm from semen enters the vagina and swim upwards
to the fallopian tube (oviduct).
 2. Fertilization
• Fertilization: the fusion of male & female gametes to
begin the formation of a new organism
• Only one sperm can enter an egg leaving its tail outside
 After Fertilization

NB: Gestation period (length of time between fertilization & birth of baby)
3. Pregnancy -Foetal Development
 Functions in Pregnancy
1. Amnion & amniotic fluid: supports and protects developing
embryo; absorbs shock

2. Placenta: disc-shaped tissue providing large surface area for

e ha ge of su sta es et ee other a d e r o’s lood

3. Villi- tiny projections of the placenta increasing contact area

between placenta and uterus lining

4. Umbilical Cord- contains artery (takes dissolved CO2 & other

wastes from embryo) and vein (takes dissolved food & oxygen
to embryo)
The Placenta
The Placenta

Fetal side

Maternal side
Human gestation period= 9 months
1st Trimester: period to 13 weeks (organ/tissue differentiation)
2nd Trimester: 14 to 27 weeks (sex organs develop and other organs mature)
3rd Trimester: 28 to 42 weeks (rapid growth period)
 FYI: Pregnancy & Baby Facts
During pregnancy:
• 5 weeks- head, body and main features can be
seen. Brain, nervous system and heart visible
• 3 months- sex of baby can be seen
• 20 weeks: Babies can respond to sound
• Babies urinate in the womb from 2nd trimester

After birth:
• Average size of baby- 50cm long
• Average birth weight- 7.5 pounds
 9.5 Methods Of Birth Control
Birth control prevents conception. Also known as contraception.

Birth control methods can either stop ovulation, fertilization or implantation.

Different methods include:

• Abstinence
• Rhythm method
• Condoms
• Diaphragm/cervical cap
• Spermicides
• Intra-uterine device (IUD)
• The pill
• Sterilization

• Check www.plannedparenthood.org for more information.

 Abstinence
Natural Method

• Refraining from sexual intercourse

• Best birth control method
• 100% safe and effective
• Also protects against STDs.
• No need for fears or worries about possible
pregnancy OR infection.
 Rhythm Method
Natural Method
• Also known as the calendar method.
• Restricting sex to times when fertilization is unlikely
to occur.
 Rhyth Method co t’d
• Based around:
1. Menstrual cycle (ovulation)
2. Fact that sperm usually only survives 3-7 days
within the female.
3. Ovum can only be fertilized 12-24hrs after
ovulation.

• Very unreliable and not recommended for

women with irregular cycles.
 Condoms
Barrier method
• The male condom is a rubber sheath placed over an
erect penis before intercourse to catch semen and
prevent entry into female.
• The female condom is inserted into the vagina to trap
semen.

Male condom Female condom

 Co do s Co t’d
Advantages
• Condoms are the most simple and effective birth
control methods.
• Also protects against STDs.
• Cheap in cost.

Disadvantages
• Not 100% effective.
• Condoms can break.
• May cause irritation to the genitals. E.g. latex allergies
• If used incorrectly, it can be ineffective.
 FYI: How to Use A Male Condom
• First check for expiration date.
• Open condom with fingers. DO NOT TEAR with teeth.
• Ensure the condom is held the correct way (looks like a hat,
not inside out like a baby bottle top)
• Pinch the tip of the condom with one hand to squeeze out
excess air which can cause condom to break.
• Place condom on tip of penis and roll condom all the way
down with the other hand.
• Hold the base of the condom in place while inserting penis
into vagina.
• After sex, carefully roll the condom off the erect penis and
tie the top in a knot.
• Wrap in tissue and throw away in a trash can!
• Wash hands with soap and water afterwards.
Using A Male Condom
FYI: How to Use A Female Condom

• First check expiration date.

• Pinch the soft smaller ring (closed end) and insert
into vagina
• Push the ring up towards the cervix
• The large, outer ring will hang outside the vagina
• Guide the penis into the condom
• After sex, carefully remove condom, wrap in
tissue and throw in the trash can.
• Wash hands with soap and water afterwards.
Inserting A Female Condom
 Diaphragm or Cervical Cap
Barrier method
• A rubber dome-shaped cup inserted
into vagina before intercourse.
• It covers the cervix.
• Generally used in conjunction with
spermicides.
• Must be prescribed and fitted by a
doctor
• Can be used multiple times.
• Can last up to 2 years
• Should stay in place 6 hours after
vaginal intercourse
 Spermicides
Chemical method
• Foams, gels or creams inserted into vagina before
intercourse to kill sperm.
• Not very reliable on its own so should be used with
other contraceptives.
• Frequent use can cause vaginal irritation and
infections.
 The Pill
Hormonal method

• Oral contraceptives containing man-

made oestrogen and/or progestin
• Inhibits the action of normal
hormones oestrogen and
progesterone
• Prevents ovulation and thickens
cervical mucus.
• Must be prescribed by doctor
• Should be taken 21 days of cycle
• Some packs have 28 pills (7 placebo
pills)
 Things to Consider Before Using The Pill
Possible side effects
headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, weight gain,
spotting between periods

Health Risks
• Blood clots (esp. with higher dose of oestrogen)
• Heart attack & stroke ( women over 40yrs)
• Breast & cervical cancer (higher risk with family history
of it)

Reduces risk of
• Ovarian, womb and bowel cancers
 Emergency Contraceptive
(Morning-After pill)

Usually taken after:

• Unprotected sex
• A condom bursts
• Forgetting regular contraceptive pill(s)

• Also contain hormones like regular pill

• Works by delaying or preventing ovulation
• Must be taken as early as possible after sex
(within 72 hours) to be effective
 Other Hormonal Methods
(Requiring prescription)
Vaginal Ring
• Flexible plastic ring inserted into vagina
• Stays in vagina for 3 weeks
• Removed and replaced with a new one the week
after
• Contains similar hormones to the pill
 Other Hormonal Methods
• The Patch
- Each patch is worn for a 7 day
period for 3 weeks
- 4th week no patch is worn.

• Implant
- Matchstick-like implant inserted
underneath skin in arm
- Can last for 3 years

• Injection
- Shot of progestin into the arm
- Usually lasts for 3 months
 Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)
• A copper or plastic T-shaped or coiled
device inserted into uterus by doctor to:
1. Prevent implantation.
2. Disrupt sperm mobility
3. Thicken cervical mucus and impede
sperm from penetrating

• Close to 100% effective.

• Lasts between 5 and 12 years

• One of the safest & most cost effective

contraceptives.

• But not common due to fears of

infections & ectopic pregnancy
 Sterilization
Surgical method
• The surgical cutting and
sealing/tying of tubes (vas Tubal ligation (females)
deferens in males and oviducts
in females.)
• Procedures are usually
permanent.

Note: Hysterectomy (the removal

of the uterus in females)
Vasectomy (males)
7.8 Advantages & Disadvantages of Birth Control Methods
Type Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
1. Abstinence No sex 100% effective; No risk of No pleasure.
Natural pregnancy/ STDs.
2. Rhythm/Calendar Monitoring menstrual cycle and Very unreliable and
restricting sex to low risk days; Cost free, no side effects, risky
Life expectancy of egg no invasive procedures etc

3. Coitus Interruptis Pulling out the penis before Sperm may leak into
(Withdrawal) ejaculation vagina before
ejaculation
1. Male condom A rubber sheath placed over May tear/break; takes
Barrier erect penis before sex to away natural feeling
prevent sperm from escaping of sex
into vagina. Cheap, no side effects, 99%
effective, protects against Female condom not
2. Female condom A double ringed rubber sheath STDs very common; must
inserted into vagina to collect be inserted.
semen.
Cap must be
3. Cervical A dome shaped cup inserted Can be used over again; prescribed & fitted
cap/Diaphragm into vagina to collect semen; effective & reliable by doctor
usually filled with spermicide. Difficult to insert
Cream, foam, gel inserted into Can be used more than Not very effective on
Chemical Spermicides vagina to kill sperm once; long lasting its own; should be
used with other
methods
7.8 Advantages & Disadvantages of Birth Control Methods
Type Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Containing female Many side effects-

Hormonal The Pill/ injections hormones (oestrogen Very effective & nausea, weight gain,
&/ progesterone) to reliable headaches, swelling
alter the menstrual
cycle by preventing
ovulation; must be
taken daily for ~21
days, not taken during
menstruation

T-shaped Almost 100% Expensive; Requires

Anti-implantation Intra-uterine device plastic/metal coil effective; long prescription and
inserted into uterus to lasting up to 12 yrs; fitting; may lead to
prevent implantation cheapest form of ectopic pregnancy;
long term birth may become
control infected
1. Vasectomy Cutting and tying of Permanent, 100% Permanent
Surgical sperm ducts effective (irreversible),
2. Tubal Ligation Cutting and tying of expensive, invasive
fallopian tubes procedure.
  Birth Control Methods

Choose the most suitable birth control method(s)

based on each factor below:
1. The safest
2. Least reliable
3. Long-lasting
4. Permanent/often irreversible
5. Protects against STDs
6. Stops ovulation
7. Reusable
 9.6 HIV/AIDS
• HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
• AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

• Cause: Virus destroys CD4 T lymphocytes of immune system

• Result: Immune system weakens and body is at risk for
opportunistic infections e.g. Kaposi sarcoma, pneumonia

• Transmission:
*Mother to child during pregnancy, labour, breastfeeding
*Infected blood products from unscreened blood transfusions
*Intravenous drug use (sharing needles)
*Unprotected sexual intercourse (exchange of semen & vaginal
fluids)
 HIV cannot be transmitted through:

• Kissing an infected person

• Being sneezed on by someone with HIV
• Sharing baths, towels or cutlery with someone
with HIV
• Swimming in a pool that has been used by
someone with HIV
• Sitting on a toilet seat that someone with HIV
has previously sat on
 Signs & Symptoms of HIV/AIDS
 Early phase of infection:
- Little or no symptoms
- Fever, headache
- Mouth sores, sore throat, rash
- Swollen lymph glands, fatigue

 Later phase of infection:

- Diarrhea, weight loss (wasting away syndrome)
- Cough, shortness of breath
- Night sweats, chills, fever
- Kaposi’s sar o a ski a er
- White lesions on tongue/mouth
- Opportunistic infections e.g. pneumonia, tuberculosis, flu etc

AIDS is the advanced stage of HIV infection characterized by many

infections due to a weakened immune system.
 Some Common Signs Of HIV/AIDS

Swollen lymph nodes Kaposi sarcoma (skin cancer) White lesions on tongue
(underarm) (oral hairy leukoplakia)

Mouth sores (ulcers) Wasting away Lymphoma (cancer)on knee

(rapid weight loss)
• Prevention & Control:
1. Abstinence
2. Limit sex to one faithful partner.
3. Use condoms.
4. Do ’t share eedles.
5. Testing & screening of all blood products
6. Get tested to k o our status a d part er’s too

THERE IS NO VACCINE FOR HIV/AIDS!!

• Methods of Treatment:
1. HAART (Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy) reduce HIV
load and delay onset of opportunistic infections.
2. Drugs to treat symptoms of infections. E.g. painkillers

THERE IS NO CURE FOR HIV/AIDS!!!

 Prevention of HIV/AIDS!
Stick to one partner.

Use condoms during sex.

Do ’t ha e se .

Use gloves when

Know your status! handling cuts
Do ’t share needles A d part er’s too
 HIV Antiretroviral Drugs(HAART)
• Drugs reduce the load of HIV in the sufferer by:
1. Inhibiting replication of viruses
2. Stopping fusion of virus to T-lymphocytes
3. Prevents entry of viruses

The life expectancy of an HIV person can be increased by

starting HAART as early as possible.
 9.6b Transmission of Gonorrhoea
• Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease. (STD)
• Causative agent: Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
• Transmitted through sexual intercourse and from
mother to child during birth.
Symptoms:
• In babies- Eyes are affected (blindness)
• In males- yellowish discharge from inflamed
urethra, pain when urinating
• In females- Often no symptoms but may have
similar ones to males.
If untreated: arthritis, weakened heart, inflammation
of reproductive tubes leading to sterility
Symptoms/Effects Of Gonorrhoea

Milky white discharge in females

Neonatal Opthalmia
(blindness in baby)

Milky white discharge in males

 Prevention & Treatment of
Gonorrhoea
• Prevention & Control:
1. Limit sex to one partner.
2. Use condoms.

• Methods of Treatment:
1. Antibiotic drugs to kill Neisseria gonorrhoea
bacteria
2. Drugs to treat symptoms of infection.
Practice Exercises
Label the Diagram Below
Label the Male Reproductive System
 Give the functions of the following:
1. Acrosome of sperm
2. Vas deferens
3. Placenta
4. Amniotic fluid
5. Umbilical cord
6. Oestrogen
7. FSH
8. Testes
9. Vasectomy
10. Spermicide
 What is this graph representing?

• Identify process A and label the following numbers:

1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
4. ___________________
 Questions
1. Differentiate between asexual and sexual
reproduction giving examples.
2. Outline the different types of abortion.
3. Discuss the importance of family planning.
4. Give 5 forms of birth control and place them
into the following categories:
i) Barrier ii) Hormonal iii) Surgical iv) Natural
v) Chemical
EXAM QUESTIONS
 Exam Questions
1. Name ONE method of natural birth control. ( 1mark)
2. Name TWO artificial methods of birth control other than the
contraceptive pill. (2 marks)
3. Explain how the contraceptive pill functions to prevent
pregnancy. (2 marks)
4. State ONE function of EACH of the following part of the
reproductive system:
i)Testis ii)Urethra iii)Oviduct iv)Ovary v)Vas deferens (5 marks)

6. Use your knowledge of the menstrual cycle and fertilization to

explain why very young/old females CANNOT normally become
pregnant. ( 2marks)
 Book References
• Phil Gadd (2009). Human & Social Biology For
CSEC. Macmillan 6th edition
• Chinnery, L. et al (2008). CXC Biology.
Cambridge University Press.
• Tindale, A.(1998). Biology: A Concise Revision
Course For CXC