Physics Investigatory Project

NAME: ADITYA RAI

CLASS: XII-C
ROLL N0:-
SESSION: 2024-25

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

ADITYA RAI
has successfully completed his Physics
project titled
The parallel and series

combinations of resistors.
under the supervision and guidance of
NEELAM SINGH

in the partial fulfillment of the Physics

practical
assessment conducted during the
academic year
2024-2025.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude to our Physics

Teacher Mrs. Neelam Singh Chauhan PGT for her
able guidance and support in completing the Project,
and Mr. Sunil Naik (Lab assistant).

We would also like to thank Principal Madam Ms.

Ishita Ghoshal for providing us with all the facility
that was required and opportunity to do this project.

I also thank my parents who gave their ideas and

inputs in making this project.

Lastly, I would like to thanks my classmates who

have done this project along with me. Their
support made this project fruitful.

- ADITYA RAI

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 INDEX

CONTENT PAGE NO.

Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Topic 5

AIM 6

Introduction 7-8

Theory 10-12

Procedure 13

Observation 14

Calculation 16

Conclusion 17

Precautions 18

Bibliography 19

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 Index

Resistors in series and parallel combina ons

Circuit Components

Resistors in series

Resistors in parallel

Summary
 AIM:-

Resistors in series and parallel combina ons

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component t h at implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors reduce the current fl ow

and lower voltage levels within circuits. Most circuits o en have more th an

one resistor to limit the flow of charges in a circuit. The two simplest

combina ons of resistors are – series and parallel. In this ar cle, we will be

discussing resistors in series and parallel combina ons.

 Circuit Components

A circuit is composed of conductors (wire), power source, load, resistor, and

switch. A circuit starts and ends at the same point. Usually, copper wire

without insula on is used as a conductor. A switch is used to make or break

a circuit. Resistors control the fl ow of the electric current in a circuit. A

resistor is a passive element which means t hat it only consumes power but

does not generate power. A load in a circuit consumes electrical energy and

converts it into other forms of energy like light, heat, etc. A load can be a

light bulb, fan, etc. Now let us know about resistors in series and parallel

combina ons.
THEORY:-

Resistors in series

Two or more resistances are said to be connected in series when they are

connected end to end and the same current fl ows through each of them in

turn. In this case, the equivalent or the total resistance equals the sum of the

number of individual resistances present in the series combina on.

Mathema cally, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistances (R1,

R2, R3, R4, R5, ……..) connected in series is given as:

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + ……..

Consider a case of three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in series with

each other with the corresponding voltage source (V1, V2, and V3) in a circuit
shown below:
The equivalent current flow through it is I, detected through the ammeter A

and key K.

The equivalent poten al difference is equal to the sum of the individual

poten al difference across each resistor, i.e.

Veq = V1 + V2 + V3

The current I through each resistor is the same i.e. I = I1 = I2 = I3 Replace the

three resistors connected in series by an equivalent single resistor of

resistance Req, such t hat the poten al difference Veq across its terminals,

and the current I through the circuit remains the same.

Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit:

Veq = IReq

By applying Ohm’s law to all resistors individually as:

V1 = IR1

V2 = IR2

V3 = IR3

Hence, IR= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

or

Req = R1 + R2 + R3

The current through the circuit will remain the same here.

The equivalent poten al difference is the sum of the individual poten al

difference across each resistor.

As a result, equivalent resistance becomes the sum of individual resistances.

The only disadvantage of a series combina on is that, if any resistor in a

series combina on is disrupted or a failure occurs, the whole circuit is

switched off.

The series combina on is needed to increase the resistance and to divide

high poten al differences across many resistances.

Such a combina on is used in resistance boxes, decora ve lights etc.

 Resistors in parallel

Two or more resistances are said to be connected in parallel connected when

they are connected between two points and each has a different current

direc on. The current is branched out and recombined as the branches

intersect at a common point in such circuits.

Mathema cally, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistances (R1,

R2, R3, R4, R5, ……..) connected in parallel is given as:

1/Req = 1/R 1 + 1/ R 2 + 1/R 3 + 1/ R 4 + 1/ R 5 + ……..

Consider a case of three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in parallel

with each other with the corresponding voltage source (V1, V2, and V3) in a

circuit shown below:

Here, the current fl ows through each resistor is different therefore, the

equivalent current fl own through the circuit is:

Ieq = I1 + I2 + I3

Replace the three resistors connected in parallel by an equivalent single

resistor of the parallel combina on of resistors be Req.

Now, by applying Ohm’s law to the parallel combina on of resistors as:

Ieq = V / Req

On applying Ohm’s law to individual resistors as:

I1 = V / R1

I2 = V / R2

I3 = V / R3

Hence, V / Req = V / R1 + V / R2 + V / R3

or

1 / Req = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3

In conclusion, we can say that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of

a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals

of the individual resistances.

The equivalent current through the circuit is the sum of individual currents

through each branch of the circuit.

The poten al difference across the two terminal points of the circuit remains

the same.

As a result, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum of

reciprocal of the individual resistances.

In a parallel circuit, a resistor or some other component can be easily

connected or disconnected without disturbing the other components.

In parallel combina on, the current fl own in the circuit is divided into

different branches and hence each component receives the required amount

of current.

Here, the equivalent resistance is always lesser than all the individual

resistances.

If one of the components fails or shorted, the rest of the components of the

circuit works usually.

 Summary
A circuit comprises conductors (wire), power source, load, resistor and
switch.

Resistors control the fl ow of the electric current in a circuit.

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the same
amount of current fl ows through all the resistors.

The following rela on gives the total resistance of a series circuit:

R total = R1 + R2 + ….. + Rn

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the voltage
is the same across all the resistors.

The following rela on gives the total resistance of a parallel circuit.

Some mes, resistors in the same circuit can be connected in parallel and
series across different loops to produce a more complex resis ve network.
Procedure :- Connecting Resistors on a
Breadboard in Series and Parallel
Objective: To demonstrate how to connect resistors in series and parallel on a
breadboard for circuit building.
Required Materials:
1. Breadboard – Asolderless platform for building circuits.
2. Resistors – Choose resistors with known values (e.g., 220Ω, 1kΩ, etc.).
3. Jumper wires – For making connections on the breadboard.
4. Power Supply – A DC voltage source (e.g., 9V battery, DC adapter).

Required Materials:
5. Breadboard – Asolderless platform for building circuits.
6. Resistors – Choose resistors with known values (e.g., 220Ω, 1kΩ, etc.).
7. Jumper wires – For making connections on the breadboard.
8. Power Supply – A DC voltage source (e.g., 9V battery, DC adapter).
9. Multimeter (Optional) – To measure voltage, current, and resistance.

1. Connecting Resistors in Series

Step-by-Step Procedure:
1. Insert the first resistor:
o Insert one leg of the first resistor into any two adjacent rows of the

breadboard. For simplicity, choose two rows in a single column (such

as rows 1 and 2).
2. Insert the second resistor:
o Insert the second resistor so that its one leg goes into the next available

row in the same column (e.g., row 3).

o The second leg of the resistor should be placed in a new row (e.g., row

4).
3. Make connections:
o Now, connect the two free legs of the resistors using jumper wires. For

example, connect the free leg of the first resistor (row 2) to the free leg
of the second resistor (row 3).
 o Repeat the same procedure if adding more resistors in series. Each
resistor will connect to the next one via the free legs.
4. Connect the power supply:
o Connect one jumper wire from the positive terminal of your power

supply to the first row of the breadboard (where the first resistor’s leg
is).
o Connect another jumper wire from the last free leg (at the end of the

last resistor) to the negative terminal of your power supply.

5. Verify the connections:
o Use a multimeter to measure the total resistance of the series-

connected resistors to ensure it matches

the sum of individual resistances (R_total = R1 +
R2 + ... + Rn).
6. Test the circuit:
o Turn on the power supply and verify that the circuit works as expected.

2. Connecting Resistors in Parallel

Step-by-Step Procedure:
1. Insert the first resistor:
o Insert one leg of the first resistor into any row on the breadboard (e.g.,

row 1).
2. Insert the second resistor:
o Insert one leg of the second resistor into another row, but in the same

column as the first one (e.g., row 2).

3. Make connections:
o Connect the second leg of both resistors together using a jumper wire.

For example, connect the free leg of the first resistor (row 1) to the free
leg of the second resistor (row 2).
4. Repeat for additional resistors:
o If you want more resistors in parallel, continue inserting the legs into

rows of the same column and connecting the free legs together.
5. Connect the power supply:
o Connect a jumper wire from the positive terminal of the power supply

to the row where one leg of all resistors is connected (e.g., row 1).
o Connect another jumper wire from the row where the other leg of all
 (e.g., row 2).
6. Verify the connections:
o Use a multimeter to measure the total resistance of the parallel-

connected resistors. The total resistance (R_total) of parallel resistors

is given by: 1Rtotal=1R1+1R2+⋯+1Rn\frac{1}{R_{total}} =
\frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \dots + \frac{1}{R_n} Make sure
this matches the calculated value.
7. Test the circuit:
o Turn on the power supply and verify that the parallel resistor network is
functioning properly.
These circuits are known as mixed resistor circuits.
Observation for Connecting Resistors on a
Breadboard in Series and Parallel
When you connect resistors in series and parallel on a breadboard, there are
several important observations that can help you understand how these two
configurations work and their effects on the overall circuit.

1. Connecting Resistors in Series

a) Total Resistance:
Observation:
When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance of the circuit is the
sum of the individual resistances. For example, if you connect a 220Ω
resistor and a 1kΩ resistor in series, the total resistance will be:
Rtotal=R1+R2=220Ω+1000Ω=1220ΩR_{\text{total}} = R_1 + R_2 = 220Ω
+ 1000Ω = 1220Ω
Explanation:
In a series circuit, the current has only one path to flow through, so it passes
through each resistor sequentially. The total resistance increases because
each resistor adds additional opposition to the current.
b) Current Through the Circuit:
Observation:
The current flowing through the circuit is the same for each resistor. This is
because, in a series circuit, the current does not split; it flows through each
resistor one after another.
Explanation:
The current II in a series circuit can be calculated using Ohm's Law:
I=VRtotalI = \frac{V}{R_{\text{total}}} where VV is the total voltage
across the series resistors and RtotalR_{\text{total}} is the sum of the
individual resistances. The current will be the same through each resistor.
c) Voltage Drop Across Each Resistor:
Observation:
The voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its resistance. In a
series circuit, the sum of the individual voltage drops equals the total voltage
applied across the circuit.
Explanation:
The voltage drop VRV_R across a resistor in a series circuit can be
calculated using: VR=I×RV_R = I \times R where II is the current flowing
through the circuit and RR is the resistance of that particular resistor.
d) Effect of Adding More Resistors:
Observation:
As more resistors are added in series, the total resistance increases, which
results in a decrease in the total current, assuming the applied voltage remains the same.
Explanation:
Since resistors in series add to the total resistance, the current decreases with each
additional resistor. The more resistors you add, the greater the total resistance and the
smaller the current.

2. Connecting Resistors in Parallel

a) Total Resistance:
Observation:
When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance decreases. The
total resistance is always less than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the
parallel combination. For example, if you connect a 220Ω resistor and a 1kΩ
resistor in parallel, the total resistance RtotalR_{\text{total}} can be
calculated as:
1Rtotal=1R1+1R2=1220+11000⇒Rtotal≈187.4Ω\frac{1}{R_{\text{total}}}
= \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} = \frac{1}{220} + \frac{1}{1000}
\Rightarrow R_{\text{total}} \approx 187.4Ω
Explanation:
In a parallel circuit, resistors provide multiple paths for the current to flow.
The total resistance decreases because the current can flow through multiple
branches. The more resistors you add in parallel, the lower the total
resistance becomes.
b) Current Through Each Resistor:
Observation:
The current through each resistor in a parallel circuit is different and depends
on the resistance of the individual resistors. A lower resistance resistor will
have a higher current flowing through it, and a higher resistance resistor will have
less current.
Explanation:
The current through each resistor is calculated using Ohm’s Law: IR=VRI_R =
\frac{V}{R} where VV is the applied voltage (the same across all resistors in parallel)
and RR is the resistance of the individual resistor. Since the voltage is constant across
each parallel resistor, the current is inversely proportional to the resistance.
c) Voltage Across Each Resistor:
Observation:
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each resistor is the same and equal to
the applied voltage.
Explanation:
This is a key characteristic of parallel circuits. Regardless of the resistance
values, each resistor experiences the same voltage, which is equal to the
voltage supplied by the power source.
d) Effect of Adding More Resistors:
Observation:
As more resistors are added in parallel, the total resistance decreases further.
The total current through the circuit increases because there are more paths
for the current to flow.
**Bibliography:**
1. **"Breadboard Circuits"**. *All
About Circuits*.
2. Retrieved from: [https://
www.allaboutcircuits.com/
textbook/](https://
www.allaboutcircuits.com/text
book/)
3. - This article provides an in-
depth guide to setting up
circuits on a breadboard,
including series and parallel
connections.
4. 2. **"Building a Simple Series
Circuit on a Breadboard"**.
*Electronics Hub*.
5. Retrieved from: [https://
www.electronicshub.org]
(https://