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Programming Language Syntax - Exam Notes

The document provides an overview of programming language syntax, covering key components such as alphabets, tokens, and grammars. It discusses lexical analysis, context-free grammars, parsing techniques, and the importance of parse trees and abstract syntax trees in syntax analysis. Additionally, it highlights the relationship between syntax and semantic processing, as well as key exam tips for understanding these concepts.

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Rahat Shahid
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12 views

Programming Language Syntax - Exam Notes

The document provides an overview of programming language syntax, covering key components such as alphabets, tokens, and grammars. It discusses lexical analysis, context-free grammars, parsing techniques, and the importance of parse trees and abstract syntax trees in syntax analysis. Additionally, it highlights the relationship between syntax and semantic processing, as well as key exam tips for understanding these concepts.

Uploaded by

Rahat Shahid
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Programming Language Syntax - Exam Notes

1. Introduction to Syntax

●​ Syntax refers to the structure and rules governing valid program statements.
●​ It is essential for defining the correct form of a programming language.
●​ Key Components:
○​ Alphabets: Characters allowed in a language.
○​ Tokens: Smallest units of meaning (e.g., keywords, identifiers, operators).
○​ Grammars: Rules defining how tokens combine to form valid constructs.

2. Lexical Analysis

●​ The process of converting source code into tokens.


●​ Lexical Rules: Defined using regular expressions.
●​ Lexical Errors: Occur due to invalid character sequences.
●​ Tools Used: Lexical analyzers like Lex/Flex.

3. Context-Free Grammars (CFGs)

●​ Used to define syntax rules formally.


●​ Components:
○​ Terminals: Actual symbols from the language.
○​ Non-terminals: Abstract symbols representing groups of terminals.
○​ Production Rules: Define how non-terminals expand into terminals.
○​ Start Symbol: The root of the grammar tree.

Example CFG Rule:​


expr -> expr + term | expr - term | term
term -> term * factor | term / factor | factor

●​

4. Parse Trees & Abstract Syntax Trees (ASTs)

●​ Parse Tree: Shows the full structure as per grammar.


●​ AST: Simplified tree focusing on essential constructs, ignoring unnecessary details.
●​ Used for syntax analysis and semantic processing.

5. Parsing Techniques

●​ Top-Down Parsing: Constructs the parse tree from root to leaves.


○​ Recursive Descent Parsing: Uses recursive procedures.
○​ LL(k) Parsers: Predictive parsers reading left-to-right.
●​ Bottom-Up Parsing: Constructs the parse tree from leaves to root.
○​ LR(k) Parsers: More powerful than LL parsers, used in compiler design.
○​ Shift-Reduce Parsing: Used in LALR parsers (e.g., Yacc/Bison).

6. Ambiguity in Grammars

●​ A grammar is ambiguous if a string has multiple valid parse trees.

Example:​
expr -> expr + expr | expr * expr | id

●​
●​ Solution:
○​ Define operator precedence & associativity explicitly.
○​ Use transformations to remove ambiguity.

7. Syntax-Directed Translation (SDT)

●​ Links syntax with semantic processing.


●​ Annotated Parse Trees: Parse trees with additional semantic rules.
●​ Synthesized vs. Inherited Attributes:
○​ Synthesized: Computed from child nodes.
○​ Inherited: Derived from parent or sibling nodes.

8. Regular Expressions vs. CFGs

●​ Regular Expressions: Define lexical structure (tokenization).


●​ CFGs: Define syntactic structure (grammar rules).
●​ Example Comparison:
○​ Regular Expression: [a-zA-Z]+ (identifiers)
○​ CFG Rule: identifier -> letter identifier | letter

9. Compiler Phases Related to Syntax

●​ Lexical Analysis: Tokenization.


●​ Syntax Analysis: Parsing using CFGs.
●​ Semantic Analysis: Ensures meaningful constructs.
●​ Code Generation: Translates AST to machine code.

10. Key Exam Tips

●​ Understand CFGs and be able to construct simple grammars.


●​ Practice parsing techniques (LL, LR, Shift-Reduce).
●​ Be clear on ambiguity resolution and operator precedence.
●​ Revise lexical vs. syntactic analysis concepts.
●​ Learn differences between Parse Trees & ASTs.

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