PART – A

UNIT – 1

1. Explain the variation of viscosity with temperature

• For Liquids:

o Viscosity decreases as temperature increases.

o Molecules move faster, reducing intermolecular forces.

o Example: Honey flows more easily when heated.

• For Gases:

o Viscosity increases as temperature increases.

o Higher temperatures lead to increased molecular activity and collisions.

o Example: Air resistance slightly increases with higher temperature.

2.Define incompressible fluid

• A fluid whose density remains constant regardless of pressure changes.

• Typical assumption for most liquids in fluid mechanics.

• Simplifies mathematical analysis and equations, such as the continuity equation.

3. State the assumptions used in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation

• Flow is steady: Fluid properties at any point do not change over time.

• Flow is incompressible: Density remains constant.

• Flow is along a streamline: Bernoulli’s equation applies along individual streamlines.

• Neglecting friction losses: No energy loss due to viscosity or other factors.

4.What is cohesion and adhesion in fluids?

• Cohesion:

o Attraction between molecules of the same substance.

o Causes surface tension in liquids.

o Example: Water droplets forming on a surface.

• Adhesion:

o Attraction between molecules of different substances.

 o Leads to capillary action when a liquid climbs up a narrow tube.

o Example: Water sticking to glass surfaces.

5.What is kinematic viscosity? State its units.

• Definition:

o Ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid density.

o Indicates how easily a fluid flows under the influence of gravity.

• Units:

o SI unit: square meter per second (m²/s).

o CGS unit: stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm²/s).

6.State momentum equation

• Momentum of momentum equation:

o Derived from Newton’s second law applied to fluid flow.

o Expresses the conservation of linear momentum for fluid elements.

o Includes forces like pressure, viscous, and body forces.

7.Define density and specific weight

• Density:

o Mass per unit volume of a substance.

o SI unit: kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m³).

• Specific Weight:

o Weight per unit volume of a substance.

o SI unit: newton per cubic meter (N/m³).

o Specific weight = density × gravitational acceleration (g).

8.What are the properties of real fluids?

• Viscosity: Resistance to deformation or flow.

o Fluids can be viscous (honey) or inviscid (ideal fluids with no viscosity).

• Compressibility: Ability to change volume under pressure.

o Real fluids can be compressible (gases) or incompressible (most liquids).

 • Surface Tension: Force acting on the surface of a liquid, causing it to contract.

o Important for phenomena like droplet formation and capillarity.

9.Define surface tension and capillarity

• Surface Tension:

o Force per unit length acting along the surface of a liquid.

o Caused by cohesive forces between liquid molecules.

o Example: Water striders walking on water.

• Capillarity (Capillary Action):

o Ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without external forces.

o Caused by adhesion between liquid and surface and cohesion within the liquid.

o Example: Water rising in a thin tube.

10.Differentiate absolute and gauge pressure

• Absolute Pressure:

o Total pressure measured relative to a perfect vacuum.

o Includes atmospheric pressure.

o Used in scientific measurements and calculations.

• Gauge Pressure:

o Pressure measured relative to ambient atmospheric pressure.

o Does not include atmospheric pressure.

o Commonly used in everyday applications like tire pressure.

 UNIT – 2

1. Difference between hydraulic gradient line and energy gradient line

o Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL):

▪ Represents the piezometric head (pressure head + elevation head) in a fluid flow.

▪ HGL is always above the flow line and decreases along the direction of flow.

▪ No kinetic energy is considered in HGL.

o Energy Gradient Line (EGL):

▪ Represents the total head (pressure head + elevation head + velocity head) in a
fluid flow.

▪ EGL is always above the HGL by the velocity head.

▪ Considers both potential and kinetic energy in the fluid flow.

2. General characteristics of laminar flow

o Fluid particles move in smooth, orderly layers without crossing each other.

o Predominant in low-velocity flows and high-viscosity fluids.

o Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000, indicating a stable flow.

3. Define boundary layer thickness

o The distance from the solid boundary to the point in the fluid where the flow velocity
reaches 99% of the free stream velocity.

o Boundary layer develops as fluid flows over a solid surface.

o Important for understanding flow separation and drag forces.

4. Hagen-Poiseuille’s formula

o Formula:

• Where:

o QQ is the volumetric flow rate.

o rr is the radius of the pipe.

 o ΔP\Delta P is the pressure difference.

o μ\mu is the dynamic viscosity.

o LL is the length of the pipe.

5. Expression for head loss due to friction in Darcy formula

o Formula:

• Where:

o hfh_f is the head loss due to friction.

o ff is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor.

o LL is the length of the pipe.

o DD is the diameter of the pipe.

o vv is the flow velocity.

o gg is the acceleration due to gravity.

6. Minor energy losses in pipes

o Losses due to pipe fittings (elbows, tees, bends).

o Losses at sudden expansions or contractions.

o Losses due to valves and other obstructions in the pipe.

7. Factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow

o Pipe roughness: Increased roughness increases frictional loss.

o Flow velocity: Higher velocity results in greater frictional loss.

o Fluid viscosity: Higher viscosity fluids experience more frictional loss.

o Pipe diameter: Smaller diameter pipes have higher frictional losses.

8. Basic equations to solve problems in flow through branched pipes

9. Dupuit’s equation

o Formula:

• Where:

o QQ is the discharge.

o KK is the hydraulic conductivity.

o AA is the cross-sectional area of the flow.

o h1h_1 and h2h_2 are the hydraulic heads at two points.

10. Moody diagram

o A graphical representation of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor as a function of

Reynolds number and relative roughness.

o Used to determine the friction factor for flow in pipes.

11. Define boundary layer

o Thin region near a solid boundary where the fluid velocity changes from zero (due to
no-slip condition) to the free stream velocity.

o Characterized by high velocity gradients and shear stress.

12. Equivalent pipes and equation used

o Equivalent Pipes:
 ▪ A theoretical single pipe that replicates the flow characteristics of a complex
piping system.

o Equation:

•
 UNIT – 3

1. Define Dimensional Homogeneity

• Dimensional homogeneity means that every term in a physical equation has the same
dimensional formula.

• It ensures that the units on both sides of an equation are consistent.

• This principle is essential for the validity of physical laws and equations.

2. Derive the Expression of Reynolds Number

• The Reynolds number (ReRe) is a dimensionless quantity used to predict flow patterns in
different fluid flow situations.

• It is given by the formula:

• where:

o ρ\rho is the fluid density

o v is the fluid velocity

o D is the characteristic length

o μ mu is the dynamic viscosity

3. Define Mach Number

• The Mach number (MM) is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of the speed of
an object to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium.

4. State Buckingham’s Pi Theorem

• Buckingham’s Pi Theorem provides a method for computing sets of dimensionless

parameters from the given variables.

• It states that if there are nn variables in a physical problem and they contain kk
fundamental dimensions, the variables can be grouped into n−kn - k dimensionless
numbers (π terms).

• This helps in reducing the number of variables and simplifying the analysis of physical
phenomena.
5. Name the Methods for Determination of Dimensionless Groups

• Rayleigh method

• Buckingham Pi theorem

• Inspection analysis

6. State Froude’s Dimensionless Number

The Froude number (FrFr) is a dimensionless quantity that compares the inertial forces to
the gravitational forces.

It is given by the

7. Define Dynamic Similarity

• Dynamic similarity occurs when two different fluid flows have the same dimensionless
parameters.

• This implies that the ratios of corresponding forces are equal in both flows.

• It allows the use of scale models to predict the behavior of actual systems.

8. What are the Advantages of Model and Dimensional Analysis?

• Simplifies the study of complex systems by using scale models.

• Reduces the number of variables by grouping them into dimensionless numbers.

• Helps in understanding the underlying physics and predicting the performance of real-life
systems.

9. List the Basic Dimensional Units in Dimensional Analyses

• Length (LL)

• Mass (MM)

• Time (TT)

• Electric current (II)

• Thermodynamic temperature (θ\theta)

• Amount of substance (NN)

• Luminous intensity (JJ)

10. What are Distorted Models? State Its Merits and Demerits.

• Distorted models are scale models where not all the dimensions are scaled uniformly.

• Merits:

o Useful for studying specific effects such as waves and sediment transport.

o Can focus on particular aspects of the phenomenon.

• Demerits:

o May not accurately represent all physical phenomena.

o Can lead to errors if not interpreted correctly.

11. Derive the Scale Ratio for Velocity and Pressure Intensity Using Froude Model Law
 UNIT – 4

1. What is Meant by Cavitation?

• Definition: Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapor-filled cavities or bubbles in a

liquid, typically occurring in regions of low pressure.

• Causes: It occurs when the local pressure in a fluid drops below its vapor pressure,
leading to the formation of vapor bubbles.

• Effects: Cavitation can cause damage to pump components, reduce efficiency, and
generate noise and vibration.

2. Define Slip of Reciprocating Pump. When Does Negative Slip Occur?

• Slip: Slip in a reciprocating pump refers to the difference between the theoretical
discharge and the actual discharge.

• Positive Slip: This occurs when the actual discharge is less than the theoretical discharge
due to internal leakages.

• Negative Slip: Negative slip occurs when the actual discharge is more than the theoretical
discharge, typically due to high-speed operation where inertia forces cause more liquid to
be discharged than calculated.

3. What is Meant by NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head)?

• Definition: NPSH is a measure of the pressure available at the pump suction to prevent
cavitation.

• NPSH Available (NPSHa): This is the actual pressure head available at the pump suction.

• NPSH Required (NPSHr): This is the minimum pressure head required at the pump suction
to avoid cavitation, as specified by the pump manufacturer.

4. What is Indicator Diagram?

• Definition: An indicator diagram is a graphical representation of the pressure in the pump

cylinder versus the volume of fluid displaced during one complete cycle.

• Purpose: It is used to analyze the performance of reciprocating pumps and engines.

• Components: The diagram typically includes curves showing the suction and discharge
pressures, helping in identifying inefficiencies and losses.
5. What are Rotary Pumps?

• Definition: Rotary pumps are positive displacement pumps that move fluid using the
rotation of gears, lobes, vanes, or screws.

• Types: Common types include gear pumps, lobe pumps, vane pumps, and screw pumps.

• Applications: They are used in applications requiring a consistent flow rate and are
suitable for pumping viscous fluids.

6. What is Meant by Priming?

• Definition: Priming is the process of removing air from the pump and its suction line to
allow the pump to function properly.

• Importance: Without priming, the pump may not be able to create the necessary suction
to draw fluid, leading to dry running and potential damage.

• Methods: Priming can be achieved manually, automatically, or by using a foot valve to

maintain the suction line filled with liquid.

7. Define Speed Ratio & Flow Ratio

• Speed Ratio: The speed ratio is the ratio of the rotational speed of the pump impeller to a
reference speed.

• Flow Ratio: The flow ratio is the ratio of the actual flow rate to the theoretical flow rate
based on pump dimensions and speed.

• Purpose: These ratios help in analyzing and comparing the performance of different
pumps under varying operating conditions.

8. Mention the Main Parts of Centrifugal Pump

• Impeller: The rotating component that imparts velocity to the fluid.

• Casing: The housing that contains the impeller and directs the flow of fluid.

• Suction and Discharge Nozzles: The openings for fluid intake and discharge.

• Shaft: The component that transmits power from the motor to the impeller.

• Seals and Bearings: These ensure that the pump operates smoothly and prevents leakage.

9. What is an Air Vessel? What are Its Uses?

 • Definition: An air vessel is a device installed on the suction or discharge line of a pump to
reduce pressure fluctuations.

• Purpose: It helps in smoothing the flow, reducing pulsations, and maintaining a steady
discharge.

• Uses: Air vessels are commonly used in reciprocating pumps to improve efficiency and
extend the life of pump components by reducing stress and vibration.

10. Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pump

• Definition: The specific speed is a dimensionless number that describes the geometric
similarity of pumps.

• Purpose: It helps in selecting the appropriate pump design for a given application based on
desired flow rate and head.

• Range: The specific speed can vary for different types of pumps, with lower values
indicating radial flow designs and higher values indicating axial flow designs.
 UNIT – 5

1. Define Volumetric Efficiency

• Definition: Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume of fluid delivered by the
pump or turbine to the theoretical volume it could deliver.

• Importance: It indicates how effectively the pump or turbine uses the available volume.

• Factors Affecting: Volumetric efficiency can be affected by factors such as leakage,

friction losses, and the compressibility of the fluid.

2. Write Short Notes on Draft Tube

• Function: A draft tube is a conduit that connects the outlet of a turbine to the tailrace,
allowing the water to discharge efficiently.

• Purpose: It helps in recovering kinetic energy from the water exiting the turbine, converting
it into pressure energy.

• Types: There are different types of draft tubes, including straight conical, elbow, and
Moody spreading types, each serving specific applications.

3. How Are Hydraulic Turbines Classified?

• Based on Energy Conversion:

o Impulse Turbines: Convert kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy (e.g.,
Pelton wheel).

o Reaction Turbines: Convert both kinetic and pressure energy of water into
mechanical energy (e.g., Francis and Kaplan turbines).

• Based on Head:

o Low Head Turbines: Operate at heads below 30 meters.

o Medium Head Turbines: Operate at heads between 30 to 300 meters.

o High Head Turbines: Operate at heads above 300 meters.

• Based on Flow Direction:

o Axial Flow Turbines: Water flows parallel to the turbine shaft.

o Radial Flow Turbines: Water flows perpendicular to the turbine shaft.

o Mixed Flow Turbines: Water flows at an angle to the turbine shaft.

4. Define Specific Speed of Turbine

• Definition: Specific speed is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the

performance of a turbine based on its speed, flow rate, and head.

• Purpose: It helps in selecting and comparing different turbines for specific applications.

• Range: Specific speed values vary, with lower values for impulse turbines and higher
values for reaction turbines.

5. What is Meant by Hydraulic Efficiency of Turbine?

• Definition: Hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of the power developed by the turbine to the
hydraulic power available from the water.

• Importance: It indicates how effectively the turbine converts the energy of water into
mechanical energy.

• Factors Affecting: Hydraulic efficiency can be influenced by factors such as water flow
rate, head, and turbine design.

6. What is Meant by Governing of Air Turbine?

• Definition: Governing of an air turbine refers to the process of controlling the turbine's
speed and power output to match the demand.

• Methods: This can be achieved through mechanisms such as nozzle control, throttle
control, and by adjusting the angle of turbine blades.

• Purpose: Proper governing ensures the efficient operation of the turbine and prevents
overspeeding and underloading.

7. List the Important Characteristics Curves of a Turbine

• Head vs. Discharge Curve: Shows the relationship between the head and the discharge
rate of the turbine.

• Efficiency Curve: Indicates the efficiency of the turbine at different operating conditions.

• Power Curve: Represents the power output of the turbine as a function of the discharge
rate.

8. Define Gross Head and Net or Effective Head

• Gross Head: The total height difference between the water source and the turbine's outlet.
 • Net or Effective Head: The actual head available for energy conversion, accounting for
losses due to friction, turbulence, and other factors.

• Importance: Both measurements are crucial for calculating the potential energy and
efficiency of the turbine.

9. What is the Difference Between Impulse Turbine and Reaction Turbine?

• Impulse Turbine:

o Water is converted into kinetic energy through a nozzle before striking the turbine
blades.

o Operates at high head and low flow rates.

o Example: Pelton wheel.

• Reaction Turbine:

o Water imparts both pressure and kinetic energy to the turbine blades.

o Operates at low to medium head and high flow rates.

o Examples: Francis and Kaplan turbines.

10. Give Example, for a Low Head, Medium Head, and High Head Turbine

• Low Head Turbine: Kaplan turbine.

• Medium Head Turbine: Francis turbine.

• High Head Turbine: Pelton wheel.

11. Explain the Type of Flow in Francis Turbine

• Mixed Flow: In a Francis turbine, water flows radially inward and then changes direction to
flow axially along the turbine shaft.

• Efficiency: This mixed flow design allows for efficient energy conversion across a wide
range of operating conditions.

• Application: Francis turbines are suitable for medium head applications and are widely
used in hydroelectric power plants.

12. How Do You Classify Turbine Based on Flow Direction and Working Medium?

• Flow Direction:

o Axial Flow: Water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine (e.g., Kaplan turbine).
 o Radial Flow: Water flows perpendicular to the axis of the turbine (e.g., Francis
turbine).

o Mixed Flow: Combination of radial and axial flow (e.g., Francis turbine).

• Working Medium:

o Water Turbines: Use water as the working fluid (e.g., Pelton, Francis, Kaplan
turbines).

o Steam Turbines: Use steam as the working fluid (e.g., steam turbine in thermal power
plants).

o Gas Turbines: Use gas as the working fluid (e.g., jet engines and industrial gas
turbines).