Register Transfer Language

The Register Transfer Language is the symbolic representation of

notations used to specify the sequence of micro-operations.

In a computer system, data transfer takes place between processor registers

and memory and between processor registers and input-output systems.
These data transfer can be represented by standard notations given below:

o Notations R0, R1, R2..., and so on represent processor registers.

o The addresses of memory locations are represented by names such as
LOC, PLACE, MEM, etc.
o Input-output registers are represented by names such as DATA IN,
DATA OUT and so on.
o The content of register or memory location is denoted by placing
square brackets around the name of the register or memory location.

The operations performed/executed on the data stored in registers are

called Micro-operations.

The term Register Transfer refers to the availability of hardware logic

circuits that can perform a given micro-operation and transfer the result of
the operation to the same or another register.

Most of the standard notations used for specifying operations on various

registers are stated below.

o The memory address register is designated by MAR.

o Program Counter (PC) holds the next instruction's address.
o Instruction Register (IR) holds the instruction being executed.
o R1 (Processor Register).
o We can also indicate individual bits by placing them in parenthesis. For
instance, PC (8-15), R2 (5), etc.
o Data Transfer from one register to another register is represented in
symbolic form by means of replacement operator. For example,
R2 ← R1 denotes a transfer of the data of register R1 into register R2.

o Typically, most of the users want the transfer to occur only in a

predetermined control condition. This can be shown by following if-then
 statement:
If (P=1) then (R2 ← R1); Here P is a control signal generated in the
control section.
o It is more convenient to specify a control function (P) by separating the
control variables from the register transfer operation. For instance,
P: R2 ← R1 statement defines the data transfer operation under a
specific control function (P).

The following image shows the block diagram that depicts the transfer of
data from R1 to R2.

Here, the letter 'n' indicates the number of bits for the register. The 'n'
outputs of the register R1 are connected to the 'n' inputs of register R2.

A load input is activated by the control variable 'P' which is transferred to the
register R2.

Von Neumann architecture

1. Fixed Program Computers - Their function is very specific and they
couldn't be reprogrammed, e.g. Calculators.
2. Stored Program Computers - These can be programmed to carry out
many different tasks, applications are stored on them, hence the name.

Modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John

Von Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in a
separate storage unit called memories and are treated the same. This novel idea
meant that a computer built with this architecture would be much easier to
reprogram.
The basic structure is like this,

A Von Neumann-based computer:

o Uses a single processor

o Uses one memory for both instructions and data.

o Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle

1. Central Processing Unit- The central processing unit is defined as the it is

an electric circuit used for the executing the instruction of computer
program. The CPU performs a variety of functions dictated by the type of
instructions that are incorporated in the computer.

It has following major components:

 Control Unit(CU) - A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It
directs all input and output flow, fetches code for instructions, and controls how
data moves around the system.

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU): The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the
CPU that handles all the calculations the CPU may need, e.g. Addition,
Subtraction, Comparisons. It performs Logical Operations, Bit Shifting
Operations, and Arithmetic operations.

 Registers: Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data
processed by the CPU are fetched from the registers. There are different
types of registers used in architecture :-

Following is the list of registers that plays a crucial role in data processing…
 1. Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU. It holds
the intermediate results of arithmetic and logical operatoins.It act as a
temporary storage location or device.

2. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next
instructions to be dealt with. The PC then passes this next address to the
Memory Address Register (MAR).

3. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of

instructions that need to be fetched from memory or stored in memory.
The memory address register is used to store the memory address. It specifies the
location in the memory to be accessed.

4. Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from

memory or any data that is to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.

5. Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched

instructions while it is waiting to be coded and executed. This register
contains the current instruction during processing.

6. Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be

executed immediately is placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.

Buses
Buses are the means by which information is shared between the registers in a multiple-
register configuration system.

Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major
internal components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:
1. Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and
the processor.
2. Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data)
between memory and processor.
3. Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status
signals from other devices) in order to control and coordinate all the
activities within the computer.

Memory Unit
A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed to
transfer information in and out of the storage. The memory stores binary information in
groups of bits called words. The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the
number of words it contains and the number of bits in each word.

Two major types of memories are used in computer systems:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
 Input/Output Devices - Program or data is read into main memory from
the input device or secondary storage under the control of CPU input
instruction. Output devices are used to output information from a computer. If
some results are evaluated by the computer and it is stored in the computer,
then with the help of output devices, we can present them to the user.

Memory Transfer
Most of the standard notations used for specifying operations on memory transfer are
stated below.

o The transfer of information from a memory unit to the user end is called a Read operation.
o The transfer of new information to be stored in the memory is called a Write operation.

o A memory word is designated by the letter M.

o We must specify the address of memory word while writing the memory transfer
operations.
o The address register is designated by AR and the data register by DR.
o Thus, a read operation can be stated as:

1. Read: DR ← M [AR]
o The Read statement causes a transfer of information into the data register (DR)
from the memory word (M) selected by the address register (AR).
o And the corresponding write operation can be stated as:

2. Write: M [AR] ← R1

o The Write statement causes a transfer of information from register R1 into the
memory word (M) selected by address register (AR).

Advantages of Read Operations:

Speed: Read operations are generally faster than write operations since the data
is already stored in the memory.
Efficiency: Read operations are more efficient since they do not require
modifying the data in memory.
Non-destructive: Read operations do not modify the data in memory, so they
can be performed repeatedly without affecting the stored data.
Disadvantages of Read Operations:

Limited functionality: Read operations only retrieve data from memory, so they
cannot be used to modify the data.

Security risks: Read operations can be used to access sensitive data stored in
memory, making them a potential security risk.

Advantages of Write Operations:

Flexibility: Write operations allow data to be modified, making them useful for
storing and updating information in memory.
Dynamic: Write operations allow data to be changed in real-time, making them
essential for many computing applications.
Customization: Write operations allow users to customize and personalize their
computing experience by modifying stored data.

Disadvantages of Write Operations:

Slower: Write operations are generally slower than read operations since the
data needs to be modified and then written back to memory.
Overwriting risk: Write operations can overwrite existing data in memory,
leading to data loss or corruption.
Wear and Tear: Repeated write operations can cause wear and tear on memory
cells, leading to reduced reliability and lifespan.

Micro-Operations
Microoperations, also known as micro-operations or micro-ops, are the fundamental and
elementary operations performed by the control unit of a microprocessor as part of the
execution of a machine-level instruction. These operations are at a very low level of abstraction
and involve the manipulation of data within the CPU's registers, memory, and data paths.

The following are the different types of micro-operations:

1. Micro-operations that move binary data from one register to another are known as register transfers.

2. In registers, arithmetic micro-operations operate on numeric data stored.

3. Bit manipulation operations on non-numeric data are performed by logic micro-operations.

4. Shift micro-operations are data-based shift micro-operations.

Arithmetic micro-operation
The Arithmetic Micro-operations deals with the operations performed on numeric data stored
in the registers. Arithmetic microoperations typically involve the use of the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), a component of the CPU responsible for performing arithmetic and logical operations.

The basic Arithmetic Micro-operations are classified in the following categories:

1. Addition
2. Subtraction
3. Increment
4. Decrement
5. Shift

Symbolic Representation Description

R3 ← R1 + R2 The contents of R1 plus R2 are transferred to

R3.

R3 ← R1 - R2 The contents of R1 minus R2 are transferred to

R3.

R2 ← R2' Complement the contents of R2 (1's

complement)

R2 ← R2' + 1 2's complement the contents of R2 (negate)

R3 ← R1 + R2' + 1 R1 plus the 2's complement of R2 (subtraction)

R1 ← R1 + 1 Increment the contents of R1 by one

R1 ← R1 - 1 Decrement the contents of R1 by one