MMPC - 015

Research Methodology
Indira Gandhi
for Management
National Open University Decisions
School of Management Studies

BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5
Unit 1 Research Methodology: An Overview 9
Unit 2 Steps for Research Process 19
Unit 3 Research Designs 39

BLOCK 2
DATA COLLECTION AND MEASUREMENT 51
Unit 4 Methods and Techniques of Data Collection 55
Unit 5 Attitude Measurement and Scales 74
Unit 6 Questionnaire Designing 88
Unit 7 Sampling and Sampling Designs 103

BLOCK 3
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 129
Unit 8 Data Processing 133
Unit 9 Statistical Analysis and Interpretation of Data: Nonparametric 143
Unit 10 Multivariate Analysis of Data 172

BLOCK 4
REPORT WRITING AND PRESENTATION 193
Unit 11 Ethics in Research 197
Unit 12 Substance of Reports 202
Unit 13 Formats of Reports 219
Unit 14 Presentation of a Report 249
COURSE DESIGN AND PREPARATION TEAM

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MMPC 015 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
FOR MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
 BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH METHODOLGOY
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Block 1 on Introduction to research Methodology consists of three units.
Unit 1 discusses the meaning of research and the importance of research in
decision-making. It also discusses the broader aspects of research methodology,
types of research and the role of research in managementdecision-making.
Unit 2discusses the steps involved in the business research process and defines
the research problems. It also explains hypothesis testing, preparing the research
design, collecting the data, analysis of data and preparation of the report or the
thesis.
Unit 3 on Research Designs covered different types of research designs, with
reference to exploratory, descriptive, and experimental research designs. The
key considerations for adopting a specific research design are discussed. The
lab and field experiments were discussed in detecting the cause-and-effect
relationships. Further, Issues of internal and external validity were discussed.
Also, decisions on choosing lab experiments or field experiments were examined.
Introduction to Research
Methodology

8
 Research Methodology:
UNIT 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: AN An Overview

OVERVIEW
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the meaning and importance of research
 Identify the need for research in decision making.
 Understand the role and purpose of research in important areas in
business.
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Research
1.3 Research Methodology
1.4 Research Method
1.5 Business Research Method
1.6 Types of Research
1.7 Importance of business research
1.8 Role of research in important areas
1.9 Summary
1.10 Self-assessment Exercises
1.11 Further Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
When managers use research, they are applying the methods of science to the art
of management. All business undertakings operate in the world of uncertainty.
There is no unique method which can entirely eliminate uncertainty. But research
methodology, more than any other procedure, can minimise the degree of
uncertainty. Thus, it reduces the probability of making a wrong choice amongst
alternative courses of action. This is particularly significant in the light of
increasing competition and growing size which make the task of choosing the
best course of action difficult for any business enterprise.
It is imperative that any type of organisation in the present environment needs
systematic supply of information coupled with tools of analysis for making sound
decisions which involve minimum risk. It is in this context that the research
methodology plays a very important role. In this unit, we will discuss at length the
importance of research in decision making by delineating all its relevant elements.

1.2 MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research is not a fishing expedition or an encyclopaedicgathering of assorted
facts. Research is purposeful investigation. The scientific method carries out a 9
Introduction to Research detailed and comprehensive investigation of a given topic, concern, or issue. It
Methodology
provides a structure for decision making. In the real-world situation, need to
make decisions to solve problems like social and environmental issues, increasing
sales, employee retention etc. You must have a problem, worry, or issue that has
transformed into a question before you can begin investigating it. There are three
parts involved in any investigation: (1) the implicit question posed. (2) the explicit
answer proposed. (3) collection, analysis, and interpretation of the information
leading from the question to the answer. This third part is the defence that justifies
the recommendation and is viewed as research. For example, consider the
statement “We recommend that model A TV be priced at 14000/-”. This was the
recommendation forwarded to the marketing vice president by the marketing
research manager. The implicit question posed in this quote is what should be
the selling price of model A? The explicit answer is Rs.14000/-. The third part
deals with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the information leading
from the question to the answer of Rs.14000/-.
The research questions can be gleaned via observation of the outside world, past
study, professional literature, or peer recommendations. Because your query must
be answered, research should begin with the appropriate question. So, research
is described as a methodical examination of a specific subject or problem using
scientific methodologies. Business research generates and provides the needed
qualitative or quantitative information to make business judgments, including
problem-solving and decision-making actions.
The word research identifies a process by which the organisation attempts to
supply the information required for making sound management decisions.
Research is not synonymous with common sense. The difference revolves around
words such as “systematic,” “objective,” and “reproducible”. Both research and
common sense depend on information; the distinction between them lies in the
procedures and methods adopted by which the information is obtained and used
in arriving at conclusions. Research cannot address itself to the complete
information on a particular subject. Hence two secondary characteristics of
research specify “relevance”, and “control.”
A systematic approach is essential in good research. Each step must be so planned
that it leads to the next step. It is usually very difficult to go back and correct the
mistakes of the previous step; sometimes it is impossible. Even when it is possible,
it will involve loss in time and money. Authors have divided research intoa number
of steps. Both the number of steps and the names are somewhat arbitrary;however,
the recognition of a sequence is crucial. Planning and organisation are part of
this systematic approach with a lot of emphasis given to the interdependence of
the various steps.
While planning, one of the very common mistakes that is committed is the
separation of data collection and data analysis. First, we collect the data; then,
we decide what analysis is appropriate. This approach invites a disaster. In one
of the research projects, depth interviews of the fresh college students were carried
out at a very high cost and the necessary data were all collected. The data were
still unanalysed because no one knew how to proceed. Our point is that
considerable thought should have been given at the planning stage itself as to
what kind of analysis will be required for the project which will satisfy the needs
10 of the decision maker.
Objectivity warrants an approach which is independent of the researcher’s Research Methodology:
An Overview
personal views and opinions with regard to the answer to the problem under
investigation. It is possible to have honest differences with respect to the proper
definition or collection procedure, but the one selected must not be chosen to
verify a prior position.

Look at a scene in the morning and then in the evening. Use the naked eye and
then the tinted glasses. It is the same with research. A high proportion of shoppers
in store A have a positive opinion of store A. Shoppers in store B may have a
totally different opinion of store A. Purchase behaviour varies with price specials.
It is always possible to prove a point if one desires, by carefully selecting the
respondents, time, and place. True research attempts to find out an unbiased
answer to the decision-making problem.

A reproducible research procedure is one which an equally competent researcher

could duplicate and from it obtain approximately the same results. In order to
achieve reproducibility, all procedures must be stated unambiguously. Precise
wording of questions, method of sampling, collection method, interviewer
instructions, and all other details must be clearly stated. Even if the environment
changes, the research is at least “conceptually” reproducible in the sense that the
steps could be mentally duplicated.

The interviewer should avoid the temptation of rephrasing the question for the
respondent in order to preserve reproducibility aspect. Poor and vague sampling
procedure can also lead to non-reproducibility. If procedures are vague and not
stated clearly, you cannot expect consistency even from the same interviewers.

Relevancy accomplishes two important tasks. First it avoids the collection of

unnecessary information along with the accompanying cost. In the second place
it forces the comparison of the data collected with the decision maker’s criteria
for action. Before the start of the research project, you should ask the question
“what action would you take if the research answer were?” This approach enables
both the investigator and the decision maker to know whether the project is on
the right direction.

Control aspect is particularly elusive in research. We must be aware that the

results of our study are due to the presence of some factor other than those we
are investigating. It is impossible to have control on all other factors; the best we
can do is to have control for those we think are most likely to cause us difficulty.
Suppose we study the relationship between shopping behaviour and income
without controlling for education and age, it will be the height of folly since our
findings may reflect the effect of education or age rather than income.

Control raises extremely difficult issues when research is conducted in a live

environment. Many factors other than the ones of principal interest may influence
the research results. The danger is that the researcher may attribute changes to
one variable when the uncontrolled variables are the causes.

Control must consider two aspects. (1) Those variables that are truly with in
your control must be varied according to the nature of your investigation. (2)
Those variables beyond your control should be recorded. 11
Introduction to Research Activity 1
Methodology
The three parts concerning any research investigation are:
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Activity 2
The five distinguishing features of any good research are:
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Activity 3
Mention a few research studies where it is impossible to have control on all
other factors:
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1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The term ‘Methodology’ is frequently used in research projects, and it gives a
complete overview of the rationality of the research. Research Methodology
refers how scientific research is carried out. It involves rationally adopting several
methods to tackle research challenges in a systematic manner. Methodology aids
in comprehending not just the results of scientific investigation, but also the
method itself. In a border way, methodology entails searching/linking methods
and studying specific theories used in research field areas, designing the best
strategy according to research goals and objectives.
Practically say ‘research methodology’ answer “how” of any piece of research is
related to the research technique and how a researcher plans a study in a structured
way to ensure reliable outcomes that address the study’s goals and objectives.
Apart from that, research methodology should explain the design decisions by
illustrating that the approaches and techniques chosen match the study objectives
and goals and provide valid and accurate results. A suitable research methodology
yields scientifically solid results, whereas a lousy methodology yields none.
Hence, it should highlight some basic (What, How, Why) questions of our
research. Such as:
1. What was the purpose of your research?
2. What types of ‘research method’ can we use and why?
3. What types of data should we consider for your research analysis
12 purposed
 4. What were the data collecting methods? Research Methodology:
An Overview
5. How did you analyze the collected data?
6. What kind of resources has been used in your research?
In addition, methodologies encompass all approaches, strategies, and instruments
used by a researcher to finish the experiment and solve the study challenge.
While methods display the entire study framework, explaining its various research
design components.After all, ‘methodology’ enables researchers to verify a study’s
accuracy and helps them identify the research method’s credibility, validity, and
dependability. Another way, we can say that methodology will justify choosing
the proper methods. On the other side,’ research methods’ give detailed
information on the research design, participants, materials, equipment, variables,
and processes.

1.4 RESEARCH METHOD

The tactics, procedures, or techniques used in collecting data or evidence for
analysis to reveal new knowledge or generate a better understanding of a topic
are referred to as research methods. The term “research methods” refers to all of
the researcher’s processes undergoing when investigating his study issue. As a
result, techniques will be regarded as the heart of research methodology. There
are several research procedures, each of which employs a unique set of data-
gathering instruments. So, when preparing your approaches, you will need to
make critical judgments over different methods using in the research. For instance,
How do you collect data (Qualitative vs. quantitative), how do you analyse the
data (Descriptive vs. experimental). Thus, research methodology isn’t simply
about the research methods, but it is to consider the logic behind the using the
methods. Researcher need to identify the logic and rationality to use one approach
over another.
Activity 4
Identify any three research methods
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Activity 5
Differentiate Methodology and Method
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1.5 BUSINESS RESEARCH METHOD

A business research method refers to a set of research procedures, tactics or
techniques used by organizations to assess if a particular business venture is 13
Introduction to Research worthwhile of their time and effort. Furthermore, research methodologies assist
Methodology
businesses in determining the feasibility of their firm and recommend the right
marketing strategy for their offerings.
Business research may assist in determining the potential desires of the clients
and allowing to design better goods and services. The nature of the business also
draws attention to the unique difficulties that a company addresses. It highlights
the major emphasis of the company’s products and incorporates everything a
firm undertakes to achieve its objectives.
Some of the critical areas where business research is used: -
 Reducing Risks. Any company, large or small, should strive to minimize
risks wherever feasible.
 Identify threats for business.
 Helps business to build customer centric.
 Forecast revenue.
 Acquire a more competitive business.

1.6 TYPES OF RESEARCH

However, research definition also varies from expert to expert and domine to
domine. In a larger context, variations of research definition could be understood
and underpin depending on researchers’ research philosophical thinking. The
belief of particular philosophy shapes researchers’ opinion to choose particular
methods for finding their research question answer. In ‘social science’ domine
perspectives, research can be classified into three broad categories (application,
objective, and enquiry) based on their perspectives in the’ social science’ domine.
When looking at a research project from the standpoint of its application, there
are two major categories to consider: pure and applied research. Pure research
deals with very abstract or specialized concepts, where the process involves
examination, development, verification of research methods, or developing and
testing the theories.
At the same time, research is classified as descriptive, correlation, and explanatory
research based on their objectivity to do research. Descriptive research mainly
describes a particular situation, individuals, groups, or phenomena. This method
is suitable when the specific research topic is less explored or proper knowledge
is not in existence. The correlational base study mainly emphasizes finding an
association between two or more aspects of a phenomenon. Rather than that,
sometimes researchers attempt to do research for more clarification purposes,
specifically to understand/explain (why, how) two or more aspects of a
phenomenon, known as explanatory base research.
From the ‘Mode of enquiry’ perspective, social research mainly follows three
broad approaches to find an answer related to the research question. One is a
qualitative/unstructured research approach that gives researchers flexibility in
all aspects of the research process; follows an unstructured, open, flexible way
of enquiry. Study results mainly focus on its diversity, and narrative perspective
14
rather than an analytical or quantified perspective and primarily concentrate on Research Methodology:
An Overview
the description of experience and feeling instead of their measurements. Another
is the structured/quantitative approach, which is deeply guided by rationalism
philosophy. The quantitative approach follows a proper predetermined, rigid,
and structured set of methods aiming to measure the phenomenal variation of
variables by giving more importance to the reliability and validity of findings
and communicating these findings more collectively so that inference can be
generalized. However, researchers will choose or combine multiple methods for
data collection and data analysis perspective for better research objectivity or
problem representation purpose.

1.7 IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business Research plays a critical role in day-to-day business activities. It helps
to solve simple to complex problems like increasing sales of a particular product
in a particular market segment and introducing a new product or starting a new
business. The below points are highlighting the important ways the research is
important for businesses.
For new ideas and insights: Research inculcates scientific and rational thinking,
and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or the economy, has considerably increased in modern times. Research
may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights to philosophers and thinkers.
Solving operational problems: The complex nature of business and government
has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational problems.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
systems.
Decisions for policymaking: Through research, we can devise alternative
policies and examine the consequences of each policymaker. Decision-making
may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the policy maker’s
decisions.
Solving problems: Research has its special significance in solving business and
industry operational and planning problems. Research is equally essential for
social scientists in studying social relationships, seeking answers to various social
problems, and providing practical guidance in solving immediate problems of
human relations.
Firms also conducted research in their core areas to find problem-related specific
solutions.
a) Products: For testing/introducing new products for existing/new product-
line extensions purposed. Identifying product core value attributes that
attract consumers most, such as - Product packaging-related research
and increased product shelf-life.
b) Price: Understanding the target segments people’s price-sensitiveness
related good/service incurred cost. Understand whether consumers treated
price as a significant entity for perceived value measurement. 15
Introduction to Research c) Place: Identification of suitable platform/areas for business transaction
Methodology
purposes and took a preventive measurement basis of satisfaction/
corporation prospect between supplier and distributors.
d) Promotions: Identify effective/efficient media platforms for running
product ads and choosing telecast frequency-time ads. Besides that,
decide how much money we should invest for promotional activity.
Business decisions: Operational research, market research, and motivational
research are considered crucial, and their results assist in making business
decisions in more than one way.
For students: To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research
may mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure. It
helps to understand the “researcher” as a user of the library.
To generalize the new theories: To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean
the generalizations of new theories. Develops a critical and scientific attitude,
disciplined thinking or absent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction
&inductive thinking); research skills will pay off in the long term, particularly in
the “age of information”.

1.8 ROLE OF RESEARCH IN IMPORTANT AREAS

The purpose of research is to improve society and businesses by progressing
knowledge through scientific theories, concepts, and ideas. Through research,
an executive can quickly get a synopsis of the current scenario which improves
his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of
the enterprise.
Marketing
Marketing research has become very crucial in taking sound marketing decisions.
Marketing research involves the process of systematic collection, compilation,
analysis, and interpretation of relevant data for marketing decisions. Research
tools are applied effectively for studies involving demand forecasting, consumer
buying behaviour, measuring advertising effectiveness, media selection, test
marketing, product positioning, and new product potential.
Production
Research enables an organisation to decide on what to produce, how much to
produce, when to produce, and for whom to produce in the field of production.
Research tools are also of immense help in quality control and setting up optimum
inventory level.
Banking
Banking institutions have found it useful to setup research departments for the
purpose of gathering and analysing information both for their internal operations
and for making in-depth studies on economic conditions of business. Reserve
Bank ofIndia has setup an excellent research department for planning and
management reporting.
16
Materials Research Methodology:
An Overview
The materials department uses research to frame suitable policies regarding where
to buy, how much to buy, when to buy, and at what price to buy.
Human resource development
The human-resource development department uses research to study wage fates,
incentive schemes, cost of living, employee turnover rates, employment trends,
and performance appraisal. It also uses research effectively for its most important
activity namely manpower planning.
Government
Research lays the foundation for all government policies in our economic system.
For example, research is applied for evolving the union finance budget and railway
budget every year. Research is used for economic planning and optimum
utilisation of resources for the development of the nation. Research is also needed
for systematic collection of information on the economic and social structure of
the nation. Such information indicates what is happening to the economy and
what changes are taking place.
Activity 4
List out the uses of research in the field of:
a) Hospital Management
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b) Railways
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c) Temple Management
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d) Traffic Control (by Police)

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1.9 SUMMARY
We have started the discussed by emphasizing that research is the application of
science to the art of management. Research lays the structure for decision making.
Research is not synonymous with common sense. Research is characterised by -
systematic, objective, reproducible, relevance, and control. Research methodology
refers to conducting research in a systematic manner using different research
methods and explain the rationality behind using certain methods. Research
17
Introduction to Research methodology minimises the degree of uncertainty involved in management
Methodology
decisions.
Business research methods refers to a set of research procedures, tactics or
techniques used by organization. Research plays a crucial role in businesses to
solve simple to complex problems. The importance and role of research in the
areas of management has been briefly covered. The areas include marketing,
production, banking, materials, human resource development, and government.

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1) Briefly explain the meaning and importance of each of the following in
research.
a) Systematic
b) Objectivity
c) Control
d) Relevance
e) Reproducible
2) Identify one or two articles referred to the business management. Read the
article carefully. To what extent do you believe that business and management
research should always meet the requirement of systematic, objective,
relevance? Give reasons for your answer.
3) Outline the features that can make business research distinctive from research
in other disciplines.
4) Briefly explain the role of research in managerial planning and decisions.
5) Discuss the role of research in managing businesses.

1.11 FURTHER READINGS

Ranjit Kumar, “Research Methodology- A step-by-step Guide for Beginners”.
Sage Publishes, New Delhi.
Boyd, Westfall, and Stasch, “Marketing Research Text and Cases”. All India
Traveller Bookseller, New Delhi.
Brown, F.E. “Marketing Research, a structure for decision making”, Addison -
Wesley Publishing Company.
Kothari, C.R. “Research Methodology - Methods and Techniques”, Wiley Eastern
Ltd.
Stockton and Clark, “Introduction to Business and Economic Statistics” D.B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Limited, Bombay.

18
 Research Methodology:
UNIT 2 STEPS FOR RESEARCH PROCESS An Overview

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Identify the steps in the research process.
 State research problems clearly and precisely.
 Formulate the research problem in terms of a hypothesis to be tested.
 Understand the role and importance of literature review in research
 Perform literature review to solve business problems in the organization.
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Research process
2.3 Define research problems
2.3.1 Research Problem
2.3.2 Importance of research problem
2.3.3 Points to Ponder on Research Problem
2.3.4 Units of Analysis
2.3.5 Sources of research topic
2.3.6 Consideration in selecting a research problem
2.3.7 Steps in formulating a research problem
2.3.8 Criteria of Selection
2.3.9 Characteristics of Good Research Questions:
2.4 Research Problem as Hypothesis Testing
2.5 Extensive literature review in research
2.6 Development of working hypothesis
2.7 Preparing the research design
2.8 Collecting the data
2.9 Analysis of data
2.10 Preparation of the report or the thesis
2.11 Summary
2.12 Self-Assessment exercises
2.13 Further Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In today’s complicated globe, every culture is confronted with major social,
political, and economic issues. These issues need to be addressed systematically,
practically, and rationally, andissues to be solvedlogically and scientifically.
However, a sequential follow process necessitates the acquisition of new
information. Research allows for the accumulation of knowledge and wisdom. 19
Introduction to Research In other words, a research methodology is a systematic act of obtaining facts,
Methodology
examining, and interpreting facts to solve issues that society faces.

2.2 RESEARCH PROCESS

Broadly, the research process is a roadmap for a researcher, and it gives an
overview of the researcher’s research journey. Similarly, consider a traveller
undertaking a journey;travellers must decide where they want to go? Which route
they want to prefer is based on a known or unknown path, and they should decide
their traveling mode before startingtheir journey. Similarly, researchers must have
clarified two critical questions: one,’What research question’s answer you are
finding? And after deciding on the research question, the second question comes:
how do you find out the research question’s answer? Research methodology is
the process of determining the answer to your research question. So, to obtain
the research question’s answer, you must go through a series of experimental
stages in your research process. However, the sequence of steps may change or
is not fixed in nature; based on the researcher’s experiences, steps may change.
Ultimately, the researcher chooses a diversity of methods/procedures for the
research process.
Research process consists of series of actions or Steps necessary to effectively
carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The following section
will try to give a proper glance of the entire process to familiarise you with the
numerous activities you’ll need to do to complete your research, giving you a
sense of what the research trip entails.

Figure 1 : Research Process

Figure 1 indicates the process consists of a number of closely related activities.

If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages,
serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the
study.

2.3 DEFINE RESEARCH PROBLEMS

2.3.1 Research Problem
In general, any questions that researchers want to be answered or any assumption
or assertion researchers wish to examine or investigate may be turned into a
research topic or a study subject. However, keeping in mind that every question
20 is not feasible to convert into a research problem because it might have difficulty
proving it. However, ‘formulating a research problem’ seems pretty easy for Steps for Research Process

newcomers in a research area, but practically formulating a research problem in

a meaningful way is not easy. Hence, it is advisable that researchers must spend
reasonable time preparing their research problem.
A problem that someone would like to research. It is anything that a person
findunsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that
need to be changed. A problem involve areas of concerns to researchers, for
condition they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for
which they want to seek answers. Research Problem refers to some difficulty/
need which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.In simple words,research
problem is a statement of the information needed by a decision maker to help
solve a management decision problem.

2.3.2 Importance of research problem

Formulation of research problem is the first and most essential step in the research
process, and it’s more like choosing your destination before starting the journey.
Also, it’s impossible to conduct a good research study without an apparent research
problem because it acts as a research foundation. Moreover, without a good
research problem, researchers cannot determine its subsequence steps and cannot
choose their methodology, directly affecting their economic plan.

2.3.3 Points to Ponder on Research Problem

The following points should be kept in mind while defining a research problem:
i) The right question must be addressed if research is to aid decision makers.
A correct answer to the wrong question leads either to poor advice or to
no advice.
ii) Very often in research problem we have a tendency to rationalize and
defend our actions once we have embarked upon a particular research
plan. The best time to review and consider alternative approaches is in
the planning stage. If this is done needless cost of false start and redoing
work could be avoided.
iii) A good starting point in problem definition is to ask what the decision
maker would like to know if the requested information could be obtained
without error and without cost.
iv) Another good rule to follow is “Never settle on a particular approach”
without developing and considering at least one alternative”.
v) The problem definition step of research is the determination and
structuring of the decision maker’s question. It must be the decision
maker’s question and not the researcher’s question.
vi) What decision do you face? If you do not have decision to make, there is
no research problem.
vii) What are your alternatives? If there are no alternatives to choose, again
there is no research problem.
21
Introduction to Research viii) What are your criteria for choosing the best alternative? If you do not
Methodology
have criteria for evaluation, again there is no research problem.
ix) The researcher must avoid the acceptance of the superficial and the
obvious.
Activity 1
Briefly mention advantages of considering nine points mentioned in 2.2 while
defining a research problem.
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2.3.4 Units of Analysis

The individuals or objects whose characteristics are to be measured are called
the units of analysis. They may be persons, groups of persons, business
establishments, inanimate objects, transactions, monetary units, or just about
objects or activity a person can name. Some very interesting communication
studies have even used words as the units of analysis. Basically, the units answer
the question, “What objects am I interested in?” Consideration of several
alternatives for units will sharpen one’s thinking concerning the appropriate
universe.
To illustrate the selection of units, consider a manufacturer of small electrical
motors who wishes to ascertain the extent to which its potential customers know
the company exists. The potential customers are basically business entities. But
the units of the universe could also be defined as purchasing departments,
production departments, engineering departments, or particular individuals within
one or more departments. Again we come to all the pervasive question of what
alternative actions are being considered by the manufacturer. In terms of these
actions, who should be aware of the manufacturer’s existence? Is the company
considering specific acts that might increase awareness levels for certain groups?
These are the sorts of questions that should be considered in specifying the
appropriate units of analysis.
Let us go a step further. Is each unit, however defined, equally important? Or
does importance vary with the purchasing power of the potential customer? If
purchasing power is the critical item, one procedure is to use the units as
established by the prior thought pattern and to weight each by the purchasing
power of the entity it represents. With this approach, no difficulty or complexity
is introduced in the definition of the universe, but a complexity must be introduced
later in the processing.
Alternatively, the basic unit of analysis could be defined in terms of transactions
rather than in terms of potential buyers. With buyers as units, the universe
consists of persons, groups of persons, or business entities. With transactions
as units, the universe consists of activities as the focus of interest. Typically, in
22
research, we wishto classify or measure the units according to some Steps for Research Process

characteristics. Once more we see the interdependence of research decisions:

the selection of universe units is best determined only in conjunction with
what is to be measured.
Is the manufacturer interested in finding the percentage of buyers who are aware
of the company’s existence? Or is the manufacturer more concerned with the -
percentage of the transactions in the market place in which the buyer is aware
(or unaware) of its existence? The same type of comparison would be required if
level of awareness were measured; here it might be average level of awareness
of buyers versus average level per transaction.
Rupee value would be still another basis for establishing units. These rupees
could be rupees expended on small electrical motors of the type made by this
manufacturer. The objective would then be to determine the percentage of the
total rupee value market awareness of the company’s existence. This was very
too close to what the president had in mind. In theory the president wanted to
classify every rupee spent as coming from a buyer who was or was not aware of
the company’s existence. The same arithmetic result is obtained if buyers are
classified according to awareness with each buyer weighted by the rupee volume
he or she generates.
The well-known management concept of a “decision-making unit” (DMU) often
comes into play in defining the units of the universe. But the DMU is usually
difficult to define in an unambiguous manner. A purchase that is a wife’s decision
in one family may be a husband’s decision in another and a joint decision in
third. How does one cope with this problem? A two-step procedure is a possibility.
The first stage units are families; within each family the decision maker is
identified. The units of the problem universe are the DMU’s. Any compromise
research universe must be evaluated against that concept, including the possibility
that the DMU is a group. The following example from marketing will clarify the
concepts.
The specification of the appropriate DMU for industrial products is more difficult
than it is for consumer products. The number of persons who have potential
involvement is greater. Job designations do not have the same meaning for all
organisations. Responsibilities for ultimate decisions vary with size of
organization, organizational structure, philosophy of decentralization, plus the
personalities involved. The question is further complicated by the fact that some
characteristics of interest refer to the organization-for example, size, geographic
location, and past purchases-while others, such as preferences education, and
attitudes, uniquely refer to specific individuals.
The problem definition, whether for a consumer product or an industrial product,
must specify the units of analysis. It is better to err at this stage by specifying
conceptually correct units that pose difficult problems in implementations.
Compromises in the transition to operational definitions can then be better
evaluated. This approach also permits the possibility of using different procedures
with different market segments or a multistage approach in identifying the relevant
DMU’s.
23
Introduction to Research Activity 2
Methodology
Explain the meaning of DMU with an example.
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2.3.5 Sources of research topic

In general, humanities, occupational or academic base study revolves around
four P’s: problem, people, phenomena, and programs, and the emphasis of each
‘P’ varies base from study to study, but in general practices, research has
considered at least two Ps. Every study has two aspects area; ‘people’ provides
researcher’s ‘study population,’ and the other three P’s (problem, phenomena,
and programs) provide ‘subject area.’
Research must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter.Initially the problems may be stated in broad general way. However,
understanding the problem thoroughly the problem statement should rephrase
into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. The best way of
understanding the problem is to discuss with colleagues,experts, in colleges and
educational institutes with guides for help to find the problem. Researcher must
at the time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with the
selected problem.

2.3.6 Consideration in selecting a research problem

There are many important things to keep in mind while considering a research
topic or problem. These considerable parameters will ultimately ensure their
study goes smoothly, in a manageable way, so they do not lose their motivation.
i) Interest: This is the primary criterion for selecting any topic or problem
because the study journey entails many more difficult, time-consuming,
and unforeseen problems. So, if the study problem does not capture the
researchers’ attention, it won’t be easy to maintain the same level
of motivation for the entire research time frame.
ii) Magnitude: A researcher must have good knowledge about the research
process. So that they can correctly visualize the task involved related to
the proposed study.
iii) Measurement of concepts: While using any concepts in your study,
make its indicator and measurement clear. For example, an investigator
wants to measure the effectiveness of a health promotional program, so
before starting research work, they must be clear about what it determines
and how they measure it.
iv) Level of expertise: As a researcher, you have to ensure that you have
proper knowledge or expertise for your proposed task.
24
 v) Relevance: As a researcher, make sure your research topic has relevance Steps for Research Process
in terms of your profession, gives value to the current value of knowledge,
and acts as a bridge of current research gaps.

2.3.7 Steps in formulating a research problem

The following steps will help those researchers who does not even decided their
research area, topic, and questions. The following process will help researchers
narrow down their vast research area into subareas that could become your
research problem.
i) Identification of broad/subject areas according to your interest.
ii) Separate the broad area into sub-areas.
iii) Select one sub-topic or sub-areas that is perceived most in interest.
iv) Raise a question and list out all possible questions that comes to mind
and if the listed question is too many for a manageable perspective, then
follow step 1-3.
v) Formulate research objectives and sub-objectives, which depend on
research questions.
vi) Evaluate objective viability in light of human, time, and financial
resources.
This task of formulating or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process. The above steps in formulating a
research problem can be divided into two activities:
i) Identification/Selection of the Research Problem
ii) Formulation of the Research Problem
i) Identification / Selection of the Research Problem
This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of
them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain selection criteria. There
are different source from which the researcher can find the research problem.
The sources of research problems can be Reading, academic experience, daily
experience, and exposure to field situations, consultations, brainstorming and
intuition.

2.3.8 Criteria of Selection

The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified
problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. They
are:
 Internal/Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s
Competence, Researcher’s own Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors– Researchability of the problem,
Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities,
Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel.
25
Introduction to Research ii) Formulation of the Research Problem
Methodology
Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions
and objectives.Formulation means translating and transforming the selected
research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is
concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem is. Essentially,
two steps are involved in formulating research problems:
a) Understanding the problem thoroughly.The most important way of
understanding the problem is discussion with colleagues or persons who
are expert in knowledge or skill. The problem is also studied using
literature survey. After understanding the problem, it is expressed, in
more specific terms to make the problem, clear.
b) Expressing the problem in more specifies terms or, more clear. Problem
definition or problem statement is a clear, precise and concise statement
of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding
an answer or solution.
There are two ways of stating a problem:
 Posting question / questions
 Making declarative statement / statements
Hence, the steps involve in the process of defining the problem as below:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem
The good research problem should meet the criteria of clear and unambiguous,
empirically possible to solve, should be able to verify with facts, interesting to
pursue finding the solution, and should be able to check the availability of
supervision.

2.3.9 Characteristics of Good Research Questions:

The good research questions must have below four important characteristics:
a) The question is feasible (i.e., It can be investigated without an undue
amount of time, energy, or money)
b) The question is clear (i.e., most people would agree as to what the key
words in the question mean)
c) The question is significant (i.e., it is worth investigating it contribute
important knowledge about human condition)
d) The question is ethical (i.e., it will not involve physical or psychological
harm or damage to human feelings, or to natural or social environment
26 of which they are part
Example 1: Steps for Research Process

Consider the following problem

“Why is the Productivity of Kathmandu Metropolis is higher than Pokhara
Municipality?”
This problem is too general so this problem should be expressed in more specific
forms as
“What factors are responsible for increasing the Kathmandu’s labour productivity
in Five manufacturing industries in 2009 related to Pokhara’s corresponding
figures?” This type of problem is specific, and the conclusion drawn through
research is considered to be more reliable.
Example 2:
 Management Problem
– Placement office has noticed, while major companies make annual
recruiting visits to campus for engineers, not many national or local
companies are formally recruiting business majors through the placement
office
– Why? How do we address this?
 Research Problems
– Why are companies not taking advantage of the resources that the
placement service offers? Are companies going around the service?
– Are companies aware of the UAH placement service?
– Are companies aware of the reputation of the UAH Business School?
– What kind of things might generate more recruiting activity?
 Marketing Research Objectives
– To determine to what extent companies are aware of the UAH placement
service
– Determine whether companies, especially locals, are aware of the strong
reputation of the UAH Business School
– To determine whether a quarterly newsletter highlighting UAH business
programs and students might generate more recruiting activity.
Example 3:
 Management Problem
– What price should we charge for our new product?
 Research Problem
– What are our costs of production and marketing (COGS)?
– What are our pricing objectives and position in the market?
– What price does similar type of products sell for? 27
Introduction to Research – What is the perceived value of our product in the marketplace?
Methodology
– Are there any norms or conventional practices in the marketplace (e.g.,
customary prices, continual discounting)
 Research Objectives
– To assess the costs involved in producing and selling our product
– To determine corporate objectives and their implications for pricing
– To examine current prices for direct and indirect competition
– To determine potential customer reaction to various prices and their
perception of the benefits of owning the product

2.4 RESEARCH PROBLEM AS HYPOTHESIS

TESTING
It is often convenient to structure a research problem in terms of a hypothesis to
be tested. The hypothesis must be agreed upon by both the manager and the
researcher, although the formal statement is primarily the responsibility of the
researcher. In this use of the word, a hypothesis is simply a statement about the
universe. It may or may not be true; the research is designed to ascertain the
truth. Consider the following pair of hypotheses.
H0: At least 10 % of the viewing audience for “children’s” TV shows consists of
adults.
H1: Less than 10 % of the viewing audience for “children’s” TV shows consists
of adults.
First, it should be noted that these hypotheses are worded in such a way that
either one or the other is correct. They cannot both be correct, and they cannot
both be incorrect. Second, in order forthese two hypotheses to be useful in a
research decision making situation, the decision maker should choose first act if
the first is true, and a second act if the second act is true. Both statements are
characteristic of all situations in which a research problem is properly structured
in terms of hypothesis testing.
The terminology “state of nature” is often used to refer to the true situation in the
universe. For example, the advertising manager for a firm selling a product
frequently purchased by adults is considering the possibility of advertising the
product on children’s TV shows.
Table 1 shows a structuring of the hypothesis with respect to the decision making.
In this case, the hypothesis has been constructed so that if H0 is true, the
recommendation is to advertise while if H1 is true, the recommendation is not to
advertise. This procedure can be extended to any number of alternatives or options.
The basic rule is that each hypothesis under test would lead to a specific
recommendation if it were true. If any alternatives enumerated would not be
adopted regardless of the research findings, those alternatives can be eliminated
without any research. If several hypotheses would lead to the same
28
recommendation, there is no need to identify which of these hypotheses true-all Steps for Research Process
hypothesis is leading to the same alternative can be grouped together into a single
hypothesis.
Table 1: States of Nature versus Recommended Decisions. Properly
Structured Research Problem
Recommended Decision
State of nature Advertise Don’t Advertise
H0 True X
H1 True X

It has established the minimum purchasing power required for the medium and
large stores as Rs.100 million and Rs.250 million, respectively. A possible
structuring of the three hypothesis is
H0: Total purchasing power is less than Rs. 100 million,
H1: Total purchasing power is between Rs. 100 million and Rs. 250 million.
H2: Total purchasing power is greater than Rs. 250 million.
The acceptance of one of these hypotheses leads directly to one of the three
actions contemplated: It is not necessary to determine purchasing power precisely
than that indicated in the three hypotheses. A two-stage research project might
be indicated. Stage one would establish whether purchasing power were clearly
within the values specified by the hypotheses. Only if stage one revealed a figure
close to Rs. 100 million or Rs. 250 million would stage two be undertaken. There
is no reason to incur the cost of determining purchasing power with precision
unless that precision is required in decision making.
Decision making as hypotheses testing is a two-step process with error possibilities
at each step. At step one there is the relationship between the states. of nature
and the action recommended. The percentage of adults in the audience may not
be a proper guide to action. The number of adults may be better guide. Rupee
value expenditure in the product category may be still better. At step two there is
the possibility that the research result may be erroneous with respect to the state
of nature. The sample may indicate that the percentage of adults in the audience
is less than 10 %. Or the opposite error may occur. Research procedures do not
yield certainty with respect to the true state of nature. No matter how careful we
are, we may conclude that HO is true when H1 is true or vice versa. This fact
means the decision maker and the researcher must evaluate the seriousness of
different kinds of errors. The seriousness of the errors can be appraised only in
terms of the actions that will be recommended. No harm occurs until the
conclusions have an impact on what the firm does.
Table 2 presents the general situation with two possible states of nature and two
alternative actions. Assuming the relationship between the two states of nature
and the two action is valid, no error occurs if we conclude that HO is true and it
is true; similarly, no errors occur if we conclude that Hl is true, and it is true.
Errors occur in each of the other cells.
29
Introduction to Research Table 2: True States of Nature versus Conclusions. Possible
Methodology
Types of Errors
State of nature Recommended Decision
H0 True H1 True
H0 True No Error Type 1 Error
H1 True Type 2 Error No Error
Consider the format of Table.3 in terms of the problem dealing with advertising
on children’s TV shows. HO (at least 10 % of the audience is composed of adults)
leads to a recommendation to advertise. H1 (less than 10% of the audience is
composed of adults) leads to a recommendation not to advertise. Under the Type
11 error we think HO is true and recommend in favour of advertising, but less
than 10% of the audience is composed of adults. The opposite situation exists
with the Type 1 error. We recommend against advertising (thinking H1 is true),
but at least 10% of the audience is composed of adults. Which error is more
serious-failing to take advantage of an existing opportunity or incurring
expenditures? Placed in those terms, it should be obvious that no general answer
can be given to the general question of which error is more serious. The decision
maker must carefully evaluate each specific situation with its unique set of
potential risks and benefits. The identification of which error is more serious is
not a meaningless intellectual exercise! The analysis can be planned in such a
way so as to minimise those errors that are viewed as more serious.
Activity 6
A hypothesis is ...................................................................................... universe
State of nature refers to ......................................................................... universe
Activity 7
Consider any research problem of interest to you.. Structure it in terms of an
appropriate hypothesis to be tested. Also mention the possible errors and
recommendations associated with your hypothesis. Illustrate your answer with
the help of a suitable example.
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2.5 EXTENSIVE LITERATURE REVIEW IN

RESEARCH
Once the problem is formulated,a brief summary of it should be written down.
The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
30 problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published
or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, Steps for Research Process
conference proceedings, Govt. reports, books etc. must be tapped depending on
the nature of the problem. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
As a researcher, the essential task is to go through the available literature to
acquire all possible knowledge related to your chosen topic area. However,
reviewing the literature is time-consuming and frustrating, but its support role is
vast, and it has a significant contribution in every research operational stage.
The begging stage helps researchers clarify research ideas, establish deep
theoretical roots, and develop solid methodological knowledge. After that, a
literature review helps to consolidate and improve your research area knowledge
and validate your finding by linking pre-established knowledge. Researcher may
review two types of literature:
i) The conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories and
ii) The empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed.
Below few points are presented in a summary form as its function.
1. It gives researchers a theoretical base for their study.
2. It established the path between suggested study and the previous study’s
findings.
3. It allows you to demonstrate how your discoveries contribute to your
field’s current body of knowledge.

2.5.1 Role of literature review on research

Gaps identification:
Literature review act as a paradox because it is necessary to have some basic
idea of the problem want to study. Another hand, a literature review effectively
influences the choice or puts conditions on thinking towards the research problem.
The literature review clarifies the research topic by gaining more profound
knowledge and further clarifies the research problem by creating a more precise
or realistic research problem. Further, it helps researchers identify the research
gap by understanding other investigators’ research findings and what suggestions
they have made.
Improving current research methodology:
Through literature review, researchers can choose appropriate methods for their
current study. When researchers review the previous study similar to their problem
field, they will know more about procedures and methods respectively understand
each method’s drawbacks. So, by becoming aware of each method’s possible
drawbacks and pitfalls, researchers can choose the best suitable methods that
will give the most valid answer to your research question.
Positioning finding in an existing body of knowledge: -
Obtaining answers through research is a comparatively easy task relative to
positioning your finding in the existing body of knowledge. Finding the research 31
Introduction to Research question’s answers must contribute to an existing body of knowledge by
Methodology
explaining its uniqueness from previous research findings and how it will fill the
current knowledge gaps.

Sources of existing literature:

To adequately search for literature on your subject of interest, you must first
understand the subject area and the problem you desire to examine to set search
parameters. After that, build a bibliography for this vast topic. Researchers mainly
refer journals, conference proceedings, Govt. reports, books etc.

2.6 DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESIS:

Following a thorough literature review, the researcher should state the working
hypothesis in plain language. The development of research hypotheses is
especially significant because they serve as the focal point of study.

The formulation of working hypotheses is critical in most types of research. The

hypothesis’s job is to assist the researcher by limiting the scope of the inquiry
and keeping them on track. It sharpens his thoughts and directs his attention to
the more critical aspects of the situation. It also specifies the sort of data requested
and the data analysis procedures to be employed.Developing working hypotheses
by using the following approach.

 Discussions with colleagues and subject matter experts regarding the

issue

 Examination of the data and records

 Examine similar studies in the area or studies on similar issues.

Working hypothesis should not be used, especially by formulative or exploratory

who do not intend to test the hypothesis. However, as a general rule, the
identification of working hypotheses is another fundamental phase in the research
process.

2.7 PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher
will be required to prepare a research design i.e.,Researcher will have to state
the conceptual structure with in which research would be conducted. “A research
design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure”. Different research designs can be conveniently described if we
categorize them as:

a) Research design in case of exploratory research studies

b) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

c) Research design in case of Experimental research design

32
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research Steps for Research Process
problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
a. The means of obtaining the information.
b. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
c. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information
will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection.
d. The time availability for research.
e. The cost factor relating to research i.e. the finance available for the
purpose.

2.7.1 Sample design:

Sampling can be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality,
the bases of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is
made. A sampling is a small proportion of a population selected for observation
and analysis. It is a collection of items or elements from a population.
Usually determining the sample design is a part of research design. Sample design
refers to the target populations from which the data would be collected and how
the data would be collected. All the items under consideration in any field of
inquiry constitute a “universe” or “population”.A complete enumeration of all
the items in the “population” is known as a “census inquiry”.Besides, this type
of inquiry involves great deal of time, money and energy.Census enquiry is not
possible in practice under many circumstances
Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis.The items so
selected constitute what is technically called a “sample.”The researcher must
decide the way of selecting sample or what is popularly known as the “sample
design”.
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
It refers to the procedure the researcher will adopt in selecting items from the
sample. It is designed before data collection. In designing a sample, the researcher
must consider three things: sampling frame, selection of sampling items and
sample size. The basic components of a sample design are:
 Choosing the sample units (who are to be surveyed)
 Choosing the sample size (how many to be surveyed)
 Choosing the sample procedure (how to ensure that those who are to be
interviewed are included in the sample)
 Choosing the media (how to reach respondents in the sample-through
mail survey, personal interview, telephone interview.)
The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the
method of selection is called ‘sampling technique.’ Researcher must prepare a
sample design which decides how a sample should be selected and of what size
such as sample would be.
33
Introduction to Research Samples can be either probability or non-probability/non-random samples.
Methodology
Random sampling methods would be collected from the samples are those based
on, simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/
area sampling. Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or
‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has
an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in
which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but
by some mechanical process.
Non – probability samples: samples are those based on, convenience sampling,
and judgmental sampling quota sampling techniques. Nonprobability also called
as purposive or deliberate sampling. Non-probability sampling is also known by
different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling, and judgment
sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately
by the researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme.

2.8 COLLECTING THE DATA

Data collection is also known as field work. It involves administrating the research
tools to gather data. It connects link to the reality of the work for the researchers.
Data collection consists of taking ordered information from reality and transferring
to some recording systems so that social behaviour can be understood and
predicted. It is based on research design. Data collection completely fulfils the
data requirements of a research project. It is the connecting link for the researchers
to the world of reality. It provides the sources of comparative data by which data
can be interpreted and evaluated against each other. Based on the data collection,
data are presented and analysed. It suggests the type and method of data for
meeting the information needed. It serves as a source of future reference and
evidence because they are used to prepare written records and helps to takes
ordered information from reality and transferring into some recording system so
that it can be later examined and analysed.
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found data at hand are inadequate,
and hence it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context
of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If
the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measures.
“The researcher should select the methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the enquiry,
financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy”.

2.9 ANALYSIS OF DATA:

The process of analysis begins after the data have been collected. After the data
have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.During
the analysis stage several interrelated procedures are performed to summarize
and rearrange the data. Researcher should classify the raw data into some
34 purposeful and usable categories.
The goal of most research is to provide information. There is a difference between Steps for Research Process

raw data and information. Informationrefers to a body of facts that are in a format
suitable for decision making, whereas data are simply recorded measures of certain
phenomena. The raw data collected in the field must be transformed into
information that will answer the manager’s questions.
The conversion of raw data into information requires that the data be edited and
coded so that the data may be transferred to a computer or other data storage
medium.If a database is large, there are many advantages to utilizing a computer.
Assuming a large database, entering the data into the computer follows the coding
procedure.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, editing, and tabulation, analysing and drawing interferences.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of
data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.Editing is
the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the
stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure where
in the classified data are put in the form of tables.Analysing work after tabulation
is generally based on the computation of various percentages, co-efficient, etc…,
by applying various well defined statistical formulas.
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.”Do the facts support the hypothesis
or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypothesis.
Various tests, such as chi square test, t-test, f-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose.The hypothesis may be tested through the use of one
or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.If
the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the
basis of data may be stated as hypothesis to be tested by subsequent researchers
in time to come.

2.9.1 Generalization and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e. to build a theory. As a matter of fact,
the real value of researcher lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.If
the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings
on the basis of some theory, it is known as interpretation.The process of
interpretation May quite offers triggers off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researcher.

2.10 PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE

THESIS:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him;
writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 35
Introduction to Research i) The layout of the report should be as follow
Methodology
a) Preliminary pages: In its preliminary pages the report should carry title
and data followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should
be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of Graphs and
charts, if any, given in the reports.
ii) The main text of the report should have the following parts;
a) Introduction: it should contain the clear statement of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be
stated in this part.
b) Main report: the main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken – down into readily identifiable sections.
c) Summary of findings: after introduction there would appear a statement
of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the
findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
d) Conclusions: towards the end of the main text, researcher should again
putdown the results of the research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the
final summing up.
iii) At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data. Bibliography. i.e., list of books, journals, reports etc..,
consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially
in a published research report.Report should be written in a concise and
objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as “it
seems”, “there may be “, and the like”.Charts and illustrations in the main
report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.Calculated “confidence limits” must be mentioned and the various
constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be
stated.

2.11 SUMMARY
The unit discusses the steps involved in the business research process. The
research process involves the seven important steps - problem definition, review
of literature, formulating objectives & hypotheses, researchdesign, data collection,
data analysis, and interpretation of results. All these stepshave been explained in
detail with their key elements. However, the unit explains the first two steps,
namely formulating the research problem and literature review, more in detail.
The following units discuss the remaining steps in detail.
The research problem identification is the first and most important step of the
research process. The researcher must understand the sources and process of
formulating the research problem. Both reviews of literature and research problem
steps are complementary, as researcher need to perform review of literature to
formulate the research problem and without knowledge gained through review
of literature cannot solve the research problem.
36
 Steps for Research Process
2.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
a. How do you describe the research process?
b. You are interested in doing some research on the interface between business
organisations and schools. Write three research questions that may be
appropriate.
c. Give an original example of a problem in which the unit of analysis is a
DMU (Decision-making-unit). Make sure to include a discussion of how to
measure the principal characteristic of interest for DMU’s which involve
more than a single individual.
d. “The problem definition stage is perhaps more critical in the research process
than the problem solution stage.” Discuss the statement.
e. Below is the gist of an article from Business Week. After reading it,
i. Identify the broad problem area
ii. Define the problem
“While Chrysler’s minivans, pickups, and sport utility vehicles take a big
share of the truck market, its cars trail behind those of GM, Ford, Honda,
and Toyota. Quality problems include, among other things, water leaks and
defective parts.”
f. What is the problem statement in the following situation?
“Companies benefit through employee loyalty. Crude downsizing in
organizations
during the recession crushed the loyalty of millions. The economic benefits
of loyalty embrace lower recruitment and training costs, higher productivity
of workers,
customer satisfaction, and the boost to morale of fresh recruits. In order that
these
benefits are not lost, some companies while downsizing try various gimmicks.
Flex
leave, for instance, is one. This helps employees receive 20% of their salary,
plus
employer provided benefits, while they take a 6 to 12 month sabbatical, with
a call
option on their services. Others try alternatives like more communication,
hand
holding, and the like.”
g. A sports goods company wishes to test two types of tennis rackets in order to
determine which one is “best”.
i. Propose and defend a precise definition of “best”.
37
Introduction to Research ii. What is the set of hypotheses that should be tested?
Methodology
iii. What action would be associated with each hypothesis?
Why are critical reviews of relevant literature important in research studies?
h. Describe the purpose of a literature survey.

2.13 FURTHER READINGS

Ranjit Kumar, “Research Methodology- A step-by-step Guide for Beginners”.
Sage Publishes, New Delhi.
Boyd, Westfall, and Stasch, “Marketing Research Text and Cases”. All India
Traveller Bookseller, New Delhi.
Uma Sekaran, Research Methods for Business – A skill building approach, Wiley
Publishers.
Brown, F.E. “Marketing Research, a structure for decision making”, Addison -
Wesley Publishing Company.
Kothari, C.R. “Research Methodology - Methods and Techniques”, Wiley Eastern
Ltd.
Stockton and Clark, “Introduction to Business and Economic Statistics” D.B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Limited, Bombay.

38
 Steps for Research Process
UNIT 3 RESEARCH DESIGNS
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Discuss the various research designs as powerful tools to study the cause
and effect relationships amongst variables in research.
 Explain the assumptions embodied in the design models.
 Choose the appropriate design model for a specific research problem.
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Functions and Goals of Research Design
3.3 Characteristics of a Good Design
3.4 Different Types of Research Designs
3.5 Exploratory Research Design
3.5.1 Techniques used for exploration
3.5.2 Characteristic of Exploratory research
3.6 Descriptive Research Design
3.7 Experimental Research Design
3.7.1 Lab-Experiment
3.7.2 The Field Experiment
3.8 Types of Experimental Designs
3.8.1 Quasi and True Experimental Designs
3.8.2 Simulation
3.8.3 Decision on Experimental designs
3.9 Summary
3.10 Self-Assessment exercises
3.11 Further Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The research design refers to a researcher’s roadmap, which they decide to follow
during their research journey to find their research question’s answer and validate
accurately, economically, and objectively as possible. The research design process
allows the researcher and writers to follow the instruction of their research work.
It tells the researcher what and how a distinctive method could be applied in
different phases of the research. By making a research design plan, researchers
are ready to decide and even ready to communicate with others or themselves
about their decisions regarding the proposed study design. How they will collect
information and select respondents, analyse the information, and communicate
to other their findings.
39
Introduction to Research Research design means an overall framework or plan for the activities to be
Methodology
undertaken during the course of a research study. When particular research area
has been defined, research problem is defined, and the related literature in the
area has been reviewed, the next step is to construct the research design. It is
fundamental to the success of any scientific research. It involves decisions
regarding what, where, when, how much and by what means concerning a research
study. It constitutes a blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data. It serves as a framework for the study, guiding the collection and analysis
of data, research instrument to be utilized and the sampling plan to be followed.
According to Kerlinger: “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy
of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance.”
According to Kinner and Taylor: “A research design is the basic plan which
guides the data collection and analysis phase of the research project. It is the
framework which specifies the type of information to be collected, the source of
data and the data collection procedure.”
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is
the preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the
“research design”. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure”. In fact, the research design is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design
includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.More explicitly, the
design decisions happen to be in respect of:
i) What is the study about?
ii) Why is the study being made?
iii) Where will the study be carried out?
iv) What type of data is required?
v) Where can the required data are found?
vi) What periods of time will the study include?
vii) What will be the sample design?
viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix) How will the data be analysed?
x) In what style will the report be prepared?

3.2 FUNCTIONS AND GOALS OF RESEARCH

DESIGN
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just
40 as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint
(or what is commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared Research Designs
by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance
of data collection and analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping
in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money.
Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in
it may upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on
the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation
of the entire edifice of the research work.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain:
(a) A clear statement of the research problem;
(b) Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) The population to be studied; and
(d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research
design as under:
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to
the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done
under these two constraints.

3.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Different research design can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:
a) Research design in case of exploratory research studies
b) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
c) Research design in case of Experimental research design
Activity 1
List out the characteristic of a good research design
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................................................................................................................................
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41
Introduction to Research
Methodology 3.5 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational
point of view.The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas
and insights. Exploration is suitable in cases where researchers have no clear
idea about upcoming problems they have met during the study.
Through this research, researchers will develop or clarify core study concepts,
establish priorities, and formulate operational definitions that will help them
improve their final research design. Sometimes researchers would like to do
some exploration related to the study areas because the study area might be
vague or new. They need to learn/identify the corresponding areas, new dilemmas,
and new essential variables. Apart from that, researchers doing exploratory studies
related to the proposed study area might know the practical feasibility. Despite
its larger scope, still researchers and managers give less importance due to higher
time taken, non-representative, subjectiveness, non-systematic design. As such
the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.In built
flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory
studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering
relevant data.

3.5.1 Techniques used for exploration

While researching something with little information may appear challenging,
various approaches may assist a researcher in determining the optimal study
design, data gathering methods, and subject selection. There are two methods
for conducting research: primary and secondary. A researcher can employ a variety
of methodologies under these two categories. Apart from that, two techniques
(qualitative and quantitative) are applicable for data gathering, but in adaptable
prospects, researchers will commonly follow the qualitative techniques. Once
researchers know the scope of qualitative research, they can easily adapt various
approaches for exploratory investigation. Some approaches are: -
 Researchers use depth interview techniques, mainly in an unstructured
way.
 Participant observation (what participants will do under the specific study
setting)
 Researchers capturing (audio, video, picture format) the group living
lifestyle considered current study.
 Case study techniques are used to understand a few conditions or events
in-depth.
 Documents analysis
 Expert interview is performed to retrieved important or in-depth study
subject’s information.
42
3.5.2 Characteristic of Exploratory research Research Designs

 Exploratory research base study is commonly unstructured, open-ended,

high-time consuming and interactive in nature because research’s have
to collect all available information related to particular study.
 Researchers do the study commonly to know the answer of What contain
bases question (Example, what is the purposed/problem of the study?).
 Research will do exploratory research specific to proposed study area,
when there is a less existence of prior research as well as existing study
not enough to answer the problem precisely.
Activity 2
Give three examples of exploratory research designs
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................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

3.6 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group. Most of the social
research comes under this category. Studies concerned with specific predictions,
with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation
are all examples of descriptive research studies.The researcher must be able to
define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for
measuring it along with a clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study.
Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information, the procedure to
be used must be carefully planned in this said study. The research design must
make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability,
with due concern for the economical completion of the research study. The design
in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why
is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering
data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what
time period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
43
Introduction to Research The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of
Methodology
research studies can be conveniently summarized in tabular form as under:
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research
Design Design

Overall design Flexible design Rigid design (design must

(design must provide opportunity make enough provision for
for considering different aspects protection against bias and
of the problem) must maximize reliability)

Sampling design Non-probability design (purposive Probability sampling design

or judgment sampling) (Random sampling)

Statistical design No pre-planned design for analysis Pre-planned design for

analysis

Observational Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought

(data collection) collection of data out instruments for
design collection of data

Activity 3
Distinguish between exploratory and descriptive research designs
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................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

3.7 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about
causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of
research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments. Today,
the experimental designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of
several disciplines.

In the form of research the marketer tries to determine if the manipulation of the
variable, called the independent variable, affects another variable, called the
dependent variable. If casual research is performed well marketers may be able
to use results for forecasting what might happen if the changes are made.

Experiments are much more effective than descriptive techniques in establishing

the casual relationships. First, the units to be studied are selected by the researcher
and each unit is assigned to the group determined by the researcher. The units do
not select their groups, thus avoiding the self-selection bias. Second, a necessary
consequence of the first, the researcher administers the predetermined treatment
or treatments to the units within each group.
44
The use of a control group is almost mandatory in experimental designs. The Research Designs
inclusion of a control group permits a better isolation of the treatment component
through a proper design like a simple cross sectional design.
A major contribution that the statisticians have made to experimental design is
the development of randomization concept which enables the researcher to reduce
the effect of the uncontrolled variables on comparative measures of response to
the variables that are under the experimenter’s control. Randomization is a useful
device for ensuring on the average, that uncontrolled variables do not favour one
treatment versus others.
To establish a causal-affects relationship or to measure one variable’s effects
(independent variables) on other variables (dependent variables), we need to
control other factors/variables because it might be possible that other factors
also influence dependent variables. However, it might be hard to control other
covariates factors that may directly/indirectly manipulate the casual relation,
especially in dynamic environmental settings due to its non-static or naturally
flow events characteristic. Hence, experimental design commonly conducted in
two setting contexts (a) in artificial setting where experimental are conducted in
tight contrived environment also known as “Lab-Experiment”. (b) In a natural
setting experimental are conducted where activities occur on a regular basis,
also known as “Field Experiment”.

3.7.1 Lab-Experiment
When research particularly interest to observe the effects of independent on
dependent variable or clearly measure the cause-effects relation between two
variables (Independent, dependent), that time they controlled the other variables
which might be possible to contained the study relation. Apart from that, some
extent independent variables manipulation also needs in order to determine the
degree of its causal effects. Laboratory setting is the best for manipulating and
controlling specifically to test the variables causal-effects. Hence, we use ‘Control’
and ‘Manipulation’ terms.
 Control
Supposed say, we postulate the two variables (X, Y) ‘causal-and-effects’ relation.
Where X and Y respectively treated as independent and dependent variables and
it is feasible that another variable, say A, will also impact the dependent variable
(Y). In that scenario, finding Y’s actual occur variation due to X is quite not
possible because we do not know the A variables actual effects on X. For example,
in web page creation context, a firm’s HR manager decide to give special training
for new haired employee. Specifically, to prove his/her VP (Vice-president) that
training programme would improve newly employee performance. However,
it’s quite possible that some of new employed performance are effective compared
to other due to previous experience. So, in order to find the truth programme
outcome, programme conductor must control the learner previous experience by
excluding those new employees who had previous experience in web page
creation.
 Manipulation of the Independent Variable
In order to examine the causal effects of an independent variable on a dependent
variable, certain manipulations need to be tried. Manipulation simply means that
45
Introduction to Research we create different levels of the independent variable to assess the impact on the
Methodology
dependent variable. For example, we may want to test the theory that depth of
knowledge of various manufacturing technologies is caused by rotating the
employees on all the jobs on the production line and in the design department,
over a 4-week period. Then we can manipulate the independent variable, “rotation
of employees,” by rotating one group of production workers and exposing them
to all the systems during the 4-week period, rotating another group of workers
only partially during the 4 weeks (i.e., exposing them to only half of the
manufacturing technologies), and leaving the third group to continue to do what
they are currently doing, without any special rotation. By measuring the depth of
knowledge of these groups both before and after the manipulation (also known
as the “treatment”), it would be possible to assess the extent to which the treatment
caused the effect, after controlling the contaminating factors. If deep knowledge
is indeed caused by rotation and exposure, the results would show that the third
group had the lowest increase in depth of knowledge, the second group had
some significant increase, and the first group had the greatest gains!

3.7.2 The Field Experiment

A field experiment, as the name implies, is an experiment done in the natural
environment in which work goes on as usual, but treatments are given to one or
more groups. Thus in the field experiment, even though it may not be possible to
control all the nuisance variables because members cannot be either randomly
assigned to groups, or matched, the treatment can still be manipulated. Control
groups could also be set up in the field experiments. The experimental and control
groups in the field experiment could be made up of the people working at several
plants within a certain radius, or from the different shifts in the same plant, or in
some other way. If there are three different shifts in a production plant, for instance,
and the effects of the piece-rate system are to be studied, one of the shifts can be
used as the control group, and the two other shifts given two different treatments
or the same treatment— that is, different piece rates or the same piece rate. Any
cause-and-effect relationship found under these conditions would have wider
generalizability to other similar production settings, even though we may not be
sure to what extent the piece rates alone were the cause of the increase in
productivity, because some of the other confounding variables could not be
controlled.
 Internal Validity and External Validity
Internal validity refers to the confidence we place in the cause-and-effect
relationship. In other words, it addresses the question, “To what extent does the
research design permit us to say that the independent variable A causes a change
in the dependent variable B?” In research with high internal validity, we are
relatively better able to argue that the relationship is causal, whereas in studies
with low internal validity, causality cannot be inferred at all. In lab experiments
where cause-and-effect relationships are substantiated, internal validity can be
said to be high.
External validity refers to the extent of generalizability of the results of a causal
study to other settings, people, or events, and internal validity refers to the degree
of our confidence in the causal effects (i.e., that variable X cause variable Y). To
46 what extent would the results found in the lab setting be transferable or
generalizable to the actual organizational or field settings? In other words, if we Research Designs
do find a cause-and-effect relationship after conducting a lab experiment, can
we then confidently say that the same cause-and-effect relationship will also
hold true in the organizational setting?
Field experiments have more external validity (i.e., the results are more
generalizable to other similar organizational settings), but less internal validity
(i.e., we cannot be certain of the extent to which variable X alone causes variable
Y). Note that in the lab experiment, the reverse is true. The internal validity is
high but the external validity is rather low.
Activity 4
Define the terms control and manipulation.
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................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

3.8 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The different types of experimental designs and the extent to which internal
validity is met in each are discussed in this section.

3.8.1 Quasi and True Experimental Designs

Some studies expose an experimental group to a treatment and measure its effects.
Such an experimental design is the weakest of all designs, and it does not measure
the true cause-and-effect relationship. This is so because there is no comparison
between groups, nor any recording of the status of the dependent variable as it
was prior to the experimental treatment and how it changed after the treatment.
In the absence of such control, the study is of no scientific value in determining
cause-and-effect relationships. Hence, such a design is referred to as a quasi-
experimental design. The true-experimental designs, which include both the
treatment and control groups and record information both before and after the
experimental group is exposed to the treatment, are known as ex post facto
experimental designs.

3.8.2 Simulation
An alternative to lab and field experimentation currently being used in business
research is simulation. Simulation uses a model-building technique to determine
the effects of changes, and computer-based simulations are becoming popular in
business research. A simulation can be thought of as an experiment conducted in
a specially created setting that very closely represents the natural environment
in which activities are usually carried on. In that sense, the simulation lies
somewhere between a lab and a field experiment, insofar as the environment is
artificially created but not far different from “reality.” Participants are exposed
to real-world experiences over a period of time, lasting anywhere from several
hours to several weeks, and they can be randomly assigned to different treatment 47
Introduction to Research groups. If managerial behaviour as a function of a specific treatment is to be
Methodology
studied, subjects will be asked to operate in an environment very much like an
office, with desks, chairs, cabinets, telephones, and the like. Members will be
randomly assigned the roles of directors, managers, clerks, and so on, and specific
stimuli will be presented to them. Thus, while the researcher would retain control
over the assignment and manipulation, the subjects would be left free to operate
as in a real office. In essence, some factors will be built into or incorporated in
the simulated system and others left free to vary (participants’ behaviour, within
the rules of the game). Data on the dependent variable can be obtained through
observation, videotaping, audio recording, interviews, or questionnaires.

3.8.3 Decision on Experimental designs

Before using experimental designs in research studies, it is essential to consider
whether they are necessary at all, and if so, at what level of sophistication. This
is because experimental designs call for special efforts and varying degrees of
interference with the natural flow of activities. Some questions that need to be
addressed in making these decisions, are the following:
 Is it really necessary to identify causal relationships, or would it suffice
if the correlates that account for the variance in the dependent variable
were known?
 If it is important to trace the causal relationships, which of the two,
internalvalidity or external validity, is needed more, or are both needed?
If only internal validity is important, a carefully designed lab experiment
would be the answer; if generalizability is the more important criterion,
then a field experiment would be called for; if both are equally important,
then a lab study should be first undertaken, followed by a field
experiment, if the results of the former warrant the latter.
 Is cost an important factor in the study? If so, would a less rather than
more sophisticated experimental design do?
These decision points are illustrated in the chart in Figure 3.1. Though managers
may not often be interested in cause-and-effect relationships, a good knowledge
of experimental designs could foster some pilot studies to be undertaken to
examine if factors such as bonus systems, piece rates, rest pauses, and so on lead
to positive outcomes such as better motivation, improved job performance, and
other favourable working conditions at the workplace. Marketing managers would
be able to use experimental designs to study the effects on sales of advertisements,
sales promotions, pricing, and the like. Awareness of the usefulness of simulation
as a research tool can also result in creative research endeavours in the
management area, as it currently does in the manufacturing side of businesses.

3.9 SUMMARY
This unit covered different types of research designs, with particular reference
to exploratory, descriptive and experimental research designs. The key
considerations for adopting a specific research design is discussed. The lab
and field experiments were discussed in detecting the cause-and-effect
48 relationships. Further, Issues of internal and external validity were discussed.
Also, decision on choosing the lab experiments or field experiments were Research Designs
examined.

3.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

a) A foreman thinks that the low efficiency of the machine tool operators is
directly linked to the high level of fumes emitted in the workshop. He would
like to prove this to his supervisor through a research study.
a) Would this be a causal or a correlational study? Why?
b) Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing study? Why?
c) What kind of a study would this be: field study, lab experiment, or field
experiment? Why?
b) Dr. Larry Norton of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center predicts that
cancer treatment will undergo major changes. Several drugs are being
developed to battle cancer without harming healthy tissues. It is a question
of discovering which of these drugs does the job best.
Design a study that would help find which drug would do the trick.
c) Is a field study totally out of the question if one is trying to establish cause-
and-effect relationships?
d) In what ways do lab experiments differ from field experiments?
e) Explain the concept of “trade-off between internal validity and external
validity.”
f) Comment on the following statement: “Because the external validity of lab
experiments is not usually high, they are useless for investigating cause and
effect relationships in organizations.”

3.11 FURTHER READINGS

Ranjit Kumar, “Research Methodology- A step-by-step Guide for Beginners”.
Sage Publishes, New Delhi.
Boyd, Westfall, and Stasch, “Marketing Research Text and Cases”. All India
Traveller Bookseller, New Delhi.
Uma Sekaran, Research Methods for Business – A skill building approach, Wiley
Publishers.
Brown, F.E. “Marketing Research, a structure for decision making”, Addison -
Wesley Publishing Company.
Kothari, C.R. “Research Methodology - Methods and Techniques”, Wiley Eastern
Ltd.
Stockton and Clark, “Introduction to Business and Economic Statistics” D.B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Limited, Bombay.

49
Introduction to Research
Methodology

50