Chapter 2

Network Models
 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Figure 1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO follows a structured process to develop and
approve standards:
1.Proposal Stage – A need for a standard is identified
and proposed.
2.Preparation Stage – Experts draft the standard.
3.Committee Stage – Members discuss and refine the
draft.
4.Enquiry Stage – The draft is shared with member
countries for feedback.
5.Approval Stage – The final version is voted on and
approved.
6.Publication Stage – The standard is published and
implemented globally.
ISO and Networking (OSI Model)

• One of the most well-known ISO standards in networking is

the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which was
developed to standardize communication between different
computing systems.
ISO’s Role in OSI Model
• The OSI model was created by ISO to standardize how
computers communicate in a network.
• It defines seven layers (Physical, Data Link, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application).
• This helps different network devices (computers, routers,
switches) communicate seamlessly, regardless of the
manufacturer.
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
Figure 2 Seven layers of the OSI model
Figure 3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Figure 4 An exchange using the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Figure 5 Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

1.Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. Defines the characteristics of the

interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.
2.Representation of bits. Consists of a stream of bits with no interpretation. To be transmitted,
bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
3.Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer.
4.Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must
be synchronized.
5.Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. i.e. point-to-point configuration or multipoint configuration
6.Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network.
7.Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
Figure 6 Data link layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

1.Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
2.Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame.
3.Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
4.Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved
through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
5.Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.
Figure 7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Figure 8 Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
 Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
1.Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary,
we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination
systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver.
2.Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create a large
network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to
provide this mechanism.
Figure 9 Source-to-destination delivery
Figure 10 Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
 Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

1.Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same

time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only
from one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running
program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a
service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the
correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
2.Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number.
3.Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented.
4.Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control.
5.Error control. the transport layer is responsible for error control. The sending
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.
Figure 11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Figure 12 Session layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

1.Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

2.Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or

synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a
file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to
ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In
this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages
that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous
to 501 need not be resent.
Figure 13 Presentation layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
1. Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted.
Because different
computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible
for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation
layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format
into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes
the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
2. Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure
privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information
to another form and sends the resulting message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its
original form.
3. Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
Figure 14 Application layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
 Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
1.Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of
a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so,
the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the
host, vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its
own terminals and allows the user to log on.
2.File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files
from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or
control files in a remote computer locally.
3.Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
4.Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
Figure 15 Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and application.

Physical and Data Link Layers

Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Figure 16 TCP/IP and OSI model
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Figure 17 Addresses in TCP/IP
Figure 18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Example 1

In Figure 19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
Figure 19 Physical addresses
Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
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