UNIT 1

3. Active and Passive Graphics Devices

Graphics devices are used to display images, videos, and other graphical content. They can be
classified into active and passive devices based on how they render and process images.

1. Active Graphics Devices

Active graphics devices have their own processing capability, meaning they include a
dedicated graphics processor (GPU) to handle rendering tasks independently of the CPU.
These devices offer high performance and can generate real-time graphics with better speed
and quality.

Examples of Active Graphics Devices:

• Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): Dedicated graphics cards like NVIDIA GeForce
and AMD Radeon process graphics-intensive applications such as gaming, video
editing, and 3D modeling.
• Monitors with Built-in GPUs: Some high-end monitors include processors to
enhance image quality and refresh rates.
• VR Headsets: Devices like Oculus Quest have built-in GPUs for rendering virtual
reality environments.

2. Passive Graphics Devices

Passive graphics devices rely on the system’s CPU for processing graphics. They do not have
a dedicated GPU, so they are slower in rendering complex visuals and are typically used for
basic display purposes.

Examples of Passive Graphics Devices:

• Integrated Graphics: Processors with built-in graphics like Intel UHD Graphics or
AMD Radeon Vega use system memory and CPU power.
• Basic Monitors and Projectors: Standard office monitors and projectors that only
display images without additional processing.
• E-paper Displays (e.g., Kindle Screens): These screens show images using minimal
processing power and refresh at a slower rate.

Key Differences:

Feature Active Graphics Devices Passive Graphics Devices

Processing Power Has a dedicated GPU Relies on CPU
High, suitable for gaming and 3D
Performance Low, suitable for basic tasks
work
Speed & Slower, not ideal for complex
Fast & real-time
Rendering graphics
 Feature Active Graphics Devices Passive Graphics Devices
GPUs, gaming monitors, VR
Examples Integrated graphics, basic monitors
headsets

Conclusion

Active graphics devices are ideal for high-performance applications, while passive graphics
devices are suited for basic display needs. Understanding these differences helps in choosing
the right device for specific tasks.

4. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a display technology used in older television sets and
computer monitors. It consists of a vacuum tube containing an electron gun that emits
electrons towards a phosphorescent screen. When the electrons strike the screen, they create
images by illuminating phosphor dots.

Key Features of CRT:

• Electron Gun: Generates electron beams that scan the screen.

• Phosphor-coated Screen: Lights up when hit by electrons, producing images.
• Deflection System: Controls the movement of electron beams to create images.
• Bulky Design: CRTs are large and heavy compared to modern flat-panel displays.

Advantages:

• High refresh rates and good color accuracy.

• No input lag, making them suitable for gaming.
• Can display multiple resolutions without quality loss.

Disadvantages:

• Heavy and bulky.

• Consumes more power.
• Prone to screen burn-in over time.

Conclusion:

CRTs were widely used before the development of LCD, LED, and OLED screens. Although
outdated, they are still used in some specialized applications like retro gaming and scientific
instruments.

5. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a flat-panel display technology that uses liquid crystals
to produce images. It is commonly used in televisions, computer monitors, smartphones, and
other electronic devices.

Key Features of LCD:

• Liquid Crystal Layers: Controls light passage to form images.

• Backlight (LED/CCFL): Provides illumination since liquid crystals do not emit
light.
• Thin and Lightweight: More compact than CRT displays.
• Energy Efficient: Consumes less power compared to CRTs.

Advantages:

• Slim and lightweight design.

• Low power consumption.
• No screen flickering.
• High resolution and image clarity.

Disadvantages:

• Limited viewing angles.

• Slower response time compared to OLED.
• May suffer from backlight bleeding.

Conclusion:

LCD technology has replaced bulky CRT displays and is widely used in modern electronic
devices due to its efficiency, clarity, and slim design.

6. Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED)

Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) is an advanced display technology that uses

organic compounds to emit light when an electric current is applied. Unlike LCDs, OLED
displays do not require a backlight, as each pixel emits its own light.

Key Features of OLED:

• Self-Emitting Pixels: Each pixel produces its own light, resulting in deep blacks and
high contrast.
• Thin and Flexible: Can be made ultra-thin, bendable, or even foldable.
• Fast Response Time: Reduces motion blur, making it ideal for gaming and fast-
action content.

Advantages:

• Superior contrast and color accuracy.

 • Wide viewing angles.
• Energy-efficient for dark images (as black pixels are turned off).

Disadvantages:

• Expensive compared to LCD.

• Risk of screen burn-in with static images.
• Shorter lifespan than LED/LCD.

Conclusion:

OLED technology is widely used in high-end smartphones, TVs, and wearable devices due to
its superior picture quality, flexibility, and energy efficiency.

7. Difference Between LCD and LED

Feature LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) LED (Light-Emitting Diode)

Uses Cold Cathode Fluorescent Uses Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Backlight Type
Lamps (CCFL) for illumination. as the backlight.
Thickness Thicker compared to LED. Thinner and more compact.
Power Consumes more power due to CCFL More energy-efficient as LEDs use
Consumption backlight. less power.
Higher contrast, better brightness,
Picture Quality Lower contrast and brightness.
and improved color accuracy.
Shorter lifespan due to CCFL Longer lifespan as LEDs are more
Lifespan
backlight. durable.
More expensive but offers better
Cost Generally cheaper.
quality.
Viewing Angles Limited viewing angles. Wider viewing angles.
Faster response time, reducing
Response Time Slower compared to LED.
motion blur.

Conclusion:

LED is an improved version of LCD, offering better picture quality, energy efficiency, and
durability. Most modern displays labeled as "LED TVs" are actually LCDs with LED
backlighting.

8. Direct View Storage Tube (DVST)

A Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) is a type of display technology that retains the image
on the screen without the need for continuous refreshing. Unlike traditional CRT displays,
which require constant refreshing to maintain the image, DVST can store the displayed image
for long periods.

Key Features of DVST:

• Uses a storage mesh to retain the image after being drawn.

• Does not require continuous refreshing like raster displays.
• Provides a stable and flicker-free display.

Advantages:

• Image remains visible without refreshing.

• No flickering, improving viewing comfort.
• Suitable for applications requiring static images, such as CAD and blueprint displays.

Disadvantages:

• Cannot support dynamic or real-time updates easily.

• Erasing and redrawing images is slow.
• Limited in applications compared to modern display technologies.

Conclusion:

DVST was used in early computer graphics and engineering applications but has been
replaced by more advanced technologies like LCD and OLED due to its limitations in
dynamic image rendering.

9. Raster Scan Displays vs. Vector Scan Displays

Raster scan and vector scan are two different techniques used for rendering images on a
display. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, making them suitable for specific
applications.

1. Raster Scan Display

A raster scan display works by scanning the screen line by line from top to bottom, updating
the image by refreshing it continuously. This method is used in modern monitors, televisions,
and digital screens.

Working:

• The display screen is divided into a grid of pixels.

• An electron beam scans each row from left to right and moves downward (like
reading a book).
• The image is refreshed many times per second to maintain a stable display.
Advantages:

Supports complex and high-resolution images.

Can display realistic images, shading, and colors.
Ideal for multimedia applications, gaming, and TV displays.

Disadvantages:

Requires continuous refreshing, leading to higher power consumption.

Prone to flickering and motion blur in low-refresh-rate displays.
Consumes more memory due to pixel-based storage.

Examples:

• LCD, LED, and OLED monitors

• Televisions
• Smartphones and tablets

2. Vector Scan Display

A vector scan display (also called random scan) draws images using straight lines between
specified points, rather than scanning the entire screen like raster displays. It was commonly
used in early oscilloscopes and CAD systems.

Working:

• The electron beam moves only to the points where lines or curves are needed.
• Images are drawn as a series of connected lines rather than pixels.
• No need for continuous refreshing unless the image changes.

Advantages:

High-quality line drawings with no pixelation.

Requires less memory since only line coordinates are stored.
No need for refreshing, reducing flickering issues.

Disadvantages:

Cannot display complex shaded images or colors easily.

Not suitable for real-world images (e.g., photographs).
Slower when rendering highly detailed graphics.

Examples:

• Early arcade games (e.g., Asteroids)

 • Computer-aided design (CAD) displays
• Oscilloscopes

Key Differences:
Feature Raster Scan Display Vector Scan Display
Rendering Uses pixels and refreshes the whole Draws images with lines and curves
Method screen. only.
Photorealistic images, animations, Line drawings, wireframes, technical
Best for
videos. designs.
Memory Usage High (stores every pixel). Low (stores only line coordinates).
No need for refreshing unless image
Refresh Rate Requires continuous refreshing.
changes.
Can appear pixelated at lower
Image Quality Crisp lines with no pixelation.
resolutions.

Conclusion:

• Raster scan displays are widely used for modern digital screens, as they support
high-quality images and colors.
• Vector scan displays are useful for technical applications like CAD but are less
common today due to limitations in rendering detailed images.

10. Random Scan Display (Vector Scan Display)

A Random Scan Display, also known as a Vector Scan Display, is a display technology
that draws images using lines and curves instead of scanning the entire screen pixel by pixel.
It moves the electron beam directly to the points where graphics need to be drawn, making it
efficient for line-based images.

Key Features:

• Uses a beam-deflection system to draw images in any order.

• Stores images as mathematical line coordinates rather than pixels.
• Ideal for wireframe models, technical drawings, and vector-based graphics.

Advantages:

Produces sharp, high-quality lines without pixelation.

Requires less memory as it stores only line coordinates.
No need for continuous refreshing, reducing flickering.

Disadvantages:
 Cannot display complex images or realistic colors.
Slower for rendering highly detailed graphics.
Limited use in modern applications due to raster technology dominance.

Examples:

• Early arcade games like Asteroids (1979).

• Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems.
• Oscilloscopes for scientific and engineering applications.

Conclusion:

Random scan displays were widely used in early computer graphics for technical drawings
but have been replaced by raster scan displays due to their ability to handle detailed and
colorful images more efficiently.

11. Difference Between Random Scan Display and Raster Scan Display

Random Scan Display (Vector

Feature Raster Scan Display
Scan)
Draws images using lines and Scans the entire screen pixel by
Rendering Method
curves. pixel.
Line drawings, wireframes, CAD High-resolution images,
Best Suited For
applications. animations, videos.
High (stores every pixel of the
Memory Usage Low (stores only line coordinates).
image).
Can appear pixelated at low
Image Quality Sharp lines with no pixelation.
resolutions.
No need for continuous refreshing Requires constant refreshing to
Refresh Rate
unless the image changes. maintain the display.
Less flickering as only necessary More flickering if the refresh
Flickering
lines are drawn. rate is low.
Complex Image Cannot display shaded images or Can display detailed and colorful
Rendering realistic graphics. images.
Faster for simple line-based Better suited for complex and
Speed
drawings. detailed images.
CAD, oscilloscopes, early arcade TV screens, monitors,
Applications
games (e.g., Asteroids). smartphones, modern displays.

Conclusion:

• Random scan displays are efficient for drawing lines and technical graphics but
cannot display realistic images.
• Raster scan displays are widely used in modern devices as they support detailed,
colorful, and high-resolution images.
12. Cohen-Sutherland Clipping Algorithm

The Cohen-Sutherland Clipping Algorithm is a line clipping algorithm used in computer

graphics to efficiently determine which portions of a line segment are inside a rectangular
clipping window. It helps in removing unnecessary parts of a line that lie outside the
viewport.

Key Features:

• Uses a region code (4-bit binary code) to classify endpoints of a line.

• Efficiently determines whether a line is completely inside, completely outside, or
partially inside the clipping window.
• Uses logical AND/OR operations to quickly reject or accept lines.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Assign region codes to endpoints of the line based on their position relative to the
clipping window.
2. Check trivial acceptance/rejection:
o If both endpoints have a 0000 code (inside window), accept the line.
o If both endpoints share a nonzero bit, reject the line.
3. If the line is partially inside, compute intersection points and update endpoints.
4. Repeat the process until the line is either accepted or rejected.

Advantages:

Fast and efficient for rectangular clipping.

Uses simple bitwise operations for quick decisions.
Reduces unnecessary intersection calculations.

Disadvantages:

Only works with rectangular clipping windows.

Requires multiple iterations for partially visible lines.

Applications:

• Used in computer graphics for rendering scenes.

• Employed in geographic mapping to clip map features within boundaries.
• Useful in graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to display only relevant content.

Conclusion:

The Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm is a widely used and optimized method for line clipping in
computer graphics, helping improve rendering efficiency.
13. Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm

The Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm is an efficient method for line clipping in
computer graphics. It determines which portion of a line segment lies inside a rectangular
clipping window using parametric equations and avoids unnecessary calculations.

Key Features:

• Uses parametric equations to determine intersection points.

• More efficient than Cohen-Sutherland because it avoids repeated calculations.
• Works by computing entering and leaving points of the line within the clipping
window.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Represent the line segment using parametric equations:

x=x1+t(x2−x1)x = x_1 + t (x_2 - x_1) y=y1+t(y2−y1)y = y_1 + t (y_2 - y_1)

where tt varies between 0 and 1.

2. Define the clipping window boundaries:

o Left: xminx_{\text{min}}
o Right: xmaxx_{\text{max}}
o Bottom: yminy_{\text{min}}
o Top: ymaxy_{\text{max}}
3. Compute the parametric values for potential intersections using:

pi=−Δx,Δx,−Δy,Δyp_i = -\Delta x, \Delta x, -\Delta y, \Delta y

qi=x1−xmin,xmax−x1,y1−ymin,ymax−y1q_i = x_1 - x_{\text{min}},
x_{\text{max}} - x_1, y_1 - y_{\text{min}}, y_{\text{max}} - y_1

where Δx=x2−x1\Delta x = x_2 - x_1 and Δy=y2−y1\Delta y = y_2 - y_1.

4. Compute entering and leaving values of tt, determining which parts of the line are
inside.
5. If tenter<tleavet_{\text{enter}} < t_{\text{leave}}, clip the line accordingly and
display the visible portion.

Advantages:

More efficient than Cohen-Sutherland, as it calculates intersections only once.

Uses simple arithmetic operations, making it faster.
Works well for rectangular clipping windows.

Disadvantages:
 Only applicable to rectangular clipping regions.
More complex than Cohen-Sutherland in terms of calculations.

Applications:

• Used in computer graphics rendering for 2D clipping.

• Applied in map-based applications for selecting visible regions.
• Used in graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to display only relevant parts of objects.

Conclusion:

The Liang-Barsky Algorithm is an optimized line clipping method, making it ideal for
applications requiring fast and efficient rendering of graphics within a rectangular boundary.

UNIT 2
3. Combined Transformation in Computer Graphics

Combined Transformation refers to the application of multiple geometric

transformations—such as translation, scaling, rotation, shearing, and reflection—on an object
in a specific sequence to achieve a desired effect. Instead of performing each transformation
separately, they are combined using matrix multiplication to improve efficiency.

Key Features:

• Uses homogeneous coordinates for easy matrix representation.

• Order of transformations affects the final result.
• Reduces computational complexity by combining multiple transformations into a
single transformation matrix.

Types of Transformations in Combination:

1. Translation: Moves an object from one location to another.

2. Scaling: Changes the size of an object.
3. Rotation: Rotates an object around a point.
4. Shearing: Distorts the shape of an object.
5. Reflection: Flips an object across an axis.

Example: Rotation Followed by Translation

1. First, apply the rotation matrix to rotate the object.

2. Then, apply the translation matrix to shift it to a new position.
3. The combined transformation is represented as:
Tcombined=Ttranslation×TrotationT_{\text{combined}} = T_{\text{translation}}
\times T_{\text{rotation}} where matrix multiplication ensures both transformations
are applied efficiently.
Advantages:

Faster computation using a single transformation matrix.

More efficient than applying transformations separately.
Maintains consistency in complex object transformations.

Applications:

• Used in computer graphics and animation for realistic movements.

• Essential in 3D modeling and game development.
• Applied in robotics and simulations for object positioning.

Conclusion:

Combined transformation simplifies multiple transformations into a single operation,

making it essential for efficient graphics rendering and geometric modeling.

4. Rotation About an Arbitrary Point in Computer Graphics

Rotation about an arbitrary point refers to rotating an object around a point other than the
origin (0,0)(0,0). Since basic rotation transformations are centered around the origin,
additional steps are required to rotate around an arbitrary point (Xr,Yr)(X_r, Y_r).

Steps for Rotation About an Arbitrary Point (Xr,Yr)(X_r, Y_r):

1. Translate the object so that the arbitrary point moves to the origin: T(−Xr,−Yr)T(-
X_r, -Y_r)
2. Apply the standard rotation matrix about the origin by angle θ\theta:
R(θ)=[cos⁡θ−sin⁡θ0sin⁡θcos⁡θ0001]R(\theta) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & -
\sin\theta & 0 \\ \sin\theta & \cos\theta & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
3. Translate the object back to its original position: T(Xr,Yr)T(X_r, Y_r)

Final Transformation Formula:

T(Xr,Yr)×R(θ)×T(−Xr,−Yr)T(X_r, Y_r) \times R(\theta) \times T(-X_r, -Y_r)

Advantages:

Allows rotation around any desired pivot point.

Essential for realistic object movements in animation and game development.
Used in robotics, simulations, and CAD applications.

Applications:

• 2D and 3D graphics for rotating objects around custom pivot points.

 • Animation and game development for character and object movements.
• Robotics and mechanical design for precise rotations in simulations.

Conclusion:

Rotation about an arbitrary point requires translation before and after rotation to shift the
pivot point to the origin. This method ensures accurate positioning in computer graphics,
simulations, and geometric modeling.

6. 3D Transformations in Computer Graphics

3D transformations are used to manipulate objects in a three-dimensional space. These

transformations help in changing an object's position, size, orientation, or shape in 3D
graphics. They are represented using 4×4 transformation matrices in homogeneous
coordinates to allow efficient computations.

Types of 3D Transformations:

1. Translation: Moves an object from one position to another in 3D space.

T(x,y,z)=[100Tx010Ty001Tz0001]T(x, y, z) = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & Tx \\ 0

& 1 & 0 & Ty \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & Tz \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}

2. Scaling: Changes the size of an object in the x, y, and z directions.

S(sx,sy,sz)=[Sx0000Sy0000Sz00001]S(s_x, s_y, s_z) = \begin{bmatrix} Sx & 0 & 0

& 0 \\ 0 & Sy & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & Sz & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}

3. Rotation: Rotates an object around the X, Y, or Z-axis by an angle θ\theta.

o Rotation about X-axis:
Rx(θ)=[10000cos⁡θ−sin⁡θ00sin⁡θcos⁡θ00001]R_x(\theta) =
\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \cos\theta & -\sin\theta & 0 \\ 0 &
\sin\theta & \cos\theta & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
o Rotation about Y-axis:
Ry(θ)=[cos⁡θ0sin⁡θ00100−sin⁡θ0cos⁡θ00001]R_y(\theta) =
\begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & 0 & \sin\theta & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -\sin\theta
& 0 & \cos\theta & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
o Rotation about Z-axis:
Rz(θ)=[cos⁡θ−sin⁡θ00sin⁡θcos⁡θ0000100001]R_z(\theta) =
\begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & -\sin\theta & 0 & 0 \\ \sin\theta & \cos\theta & 0
& 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
4. Shearing: Distorts the shape of an object by shifting it along one of the axes.
5. Reflection: Flips an object across a plane (XY, YZ, or XZ).

Applications of 3D Transformations:
 • Used in 3D modeling and animation for object manipulation.
• Essential in virtual reality (VR) and gaming for realistic environments.
• Applied in robotics and simulations for precise movement control.

Conclusion:

3D transformations allow objects to be positioned, resized, and oriented in a 3D space. They

play a crucial role in computer graphics, animation, gaming, and simulations.

7. Multiple Transformations in Computer Graphics

Multiple transformations refer to the sequential application of more than one geometric
transformation—such as translation, scaling, rotation, shearing, and reflection—on an object
to achieve the desired positioning and shape in a 2D or 3D space. Instead of performing each
transformation separately, they are combined into a single transformation matrix to
improve efficiency.

Key Features:

• Uses homogeneous coordinates for easy matrix representation.

• The order of transformations matters (e.g., rotating before translating gives
different results than translating before rotating).
• Reduces computation by combining multiple transformations into one matrix
multiplication.

Example of Multiple Transformations:

1. Translation: Moves the object to a new position.

2. Scaling: Changes the object’s size.
3. Rotation: Rotates the object around a point.

The combined transformation is represented as:

Tfinal=Ttranslation×Tscaling×TrotationT_{\text{final}} = T_{\text{translation}} \times

T_{\text{scaling}} \times T_{\text{rotation}}

Advantages:

Reduces computational steps by combining transformations into a single matrix.

Ensures consistent object manipulation in 3D modeling and animations.
Simplifies complex transformations in computer graphics and simulations.

Applications:

• Computer graphics and animations for smooth motion.

• Game development and VR for realistic character movement.
 • Robotics and CAD software for precise object positioning.

Conclusion:

Multiple transformations allow efficient manipulation of objects by applying various

transformations in a sequence. They are widely used in graphics, animation, and
simulations to achieve complex visual effects.

8. Parallel Projection in Computer Graphics

Parallel projection is a type of projection in computer graphics where parallel lines remain
parallel after projection, meaning there is no perspective distortion. It is commonly used in
engineering drawings, CAD applications, and architectural designs where accurate
measurements are required.

Types of Parallel Projection:

1. Orthographic Projection:
o The projection lines are perpendicular to the projection plane.
o Used for technical drawings and blueprints.
o Subtypes:
▪ Top view (Plan view)
▪ Front view (Elevation view)
▪ Side view
2. Oblique Projection:
o The projection lines are at an angle to the projection plane.
o Provides a pseudo-3D effect while preserving dimensions.
o Types:
▪ Cavalier projection (full depth is preserved).
▪ Cabinet projection (depth is scaled to half).
3. Axonometric Projection:
o A form of orthographic projection that shows multiple sides of an object.
o Types:
▪ Isometric projection (equal foreshortening along all three axes).
▪ Dimetric projection (two axes have the same scale, one is different).
▪ Trimetric projection (each axis has a different scale).

Advantages:

Maintains true shape and size, making it ideal for technical drawings.
No perspective distortion, ensuring accurate measurements.
Simple and efficient for CAD and engineering applications.

Disadvantages:
 Lacks depth perception, making it less realistic.
Can appear flat compared to perspective projections.

Applications:

• Engineering and architectural drawings for precise measurements.

• CAD software for designing mechanical and civil structures.
• Video games and simulations for 2D sprite-based graphics.

Conclusion:

Parallel projection is essential for applications where accuracy and measurement

consistency are required, making it widely used in technical drawing, CAD, and design
visualization.

9. Perspective Projection in Computer Graphics

Perspective projection is a technique in computer graphics where objects appear smaller as

they move farther from the viewer, creating a sense of depth and realism. Unlike parallel
projection, perspective projection mimics how the human eye perceives the world.

Key Features:

• Lines converge toward a vanishing point, adding depth perception.

• Objects farther away appear smaller, while closer objects appear larger.
• More realistic representation compared to parallel projection.

Types of Perspective Projection:

1. One-Point Perspective:
o Has one vanishing point (e.g., looking down a straight road).
o Common in simple 3D renderings and architectural drawings.
2. Two-Point Perspective:
o Has two vanishing points (e.g., a building corner).
o Provides a more realistic view of objects.
3. Three-Point Perspective:
o Has three vanishing points (e.g., looking up at a skyscraper).
o Used for highly realistic 3D effects.

Mathematical Representation:

The perspective projection transformation is given by:

X′=XZ,Y′=YZX' = \frac{X}{Z}, \quad Y' = \frac{Y}{Z}

where Z is the depth (distance from the viewer).

Advantages:

Realistic appearance, making it suitable for 3D applications.

Depth perception enhances visual appeal.
Essential in games, simulations, and VR applications.

Disadvantages:

Objects farther away may appear distorted.

Complex calculations compared to parallel projection.

Applications:

• 3D games and animations for realistic environments.

• Virtual reality (VR) and simulations for depth perception.
• Architectural visualization for immersive representations.

Conclusion:

Perspective projection is widely used in 3D graphics, gaming, VR, and animation to create
a realistic sense of depth, making it essential for immersive visual experiences.

10. Difference Between Parallel Projection and Perspective Projection

Feature Parallel Projection Perspective Projection

Projects objects using converging
Projects objects using parallel
Definition projection lines toward a vanishing
projection lines.
point.
No depth perception; objects appear Creates depth perception; objects
Depth Perception
the same size regardless of distance. farther away appear smaller.
More realistic, mimics human eye
Realism Less realistic, appears flat.
perception.
Parallel to each other and do not Converge toward a vanishing
Projection Lines
converge. point.
Distant objects appear smaller,
Size of Objects Same size regardless of distance.
closer objects appear larger.
Mathematical More complex due to division by
Simple calculations.
Complexity depth (Z-axis).
Orthographic, Oblique,
One-point, Two-point, Three-
Types Axonometric (Isometric, Dimetric,
point perspective.
Trimetric).
Used in engineering drawings, Used in 3D graphics, gaming,
Applications CAD, blueprints for accurate animation, VR, and movies for
measurements. realistic visuals.
Conclusion:

• Parallel projection is best for technical drawings and CAD, where accuracy is key.
• Perspective projection is ideal for 3D rendering, gaming, and realistic
visualization due to its depth effect.

11. Explanation of Orthographic, Axonometric, and Oblique Projection

These are different types of parallel projections used in computer graphics and
engineering drawings to represent 3D objects on a 2D plane without perspective distortion.

1. Orthographic Projection
• A parallel projection where projection lines are perpendicular to the projection
plane.
• Used for technical drawings, CAD, and blueprints.
• Shows true dimensions without distortion.

Types of Orthographic Projection:

1. Multiview Projection:
o Displays different views of an object (Front, Top, Side).
o Used in engineering drawings.
2. Axonometric Projection:
o A special type of orthographic projection where the object is rotated to show
multiple sides.
o Includes isometric, dimetric, and trimetric projections.

2. Axonometric Projection
• A type of orthographic projection where the object is tilted to reveal multiple faces.
• Maintains parallel lines but distorts angles.

Types of Axonometric Projection:

1. Isometric Projection:
o All three axes are equally foreshortened.
o The angle between axes is 120°.
o Most commonly used for 3D CAD models and technical drawings.
2. Dimetric Projection:
o Two axes are equally foreshortened, the third is different.
 oUsed in architectural drawings.
3. Trimetric Projection:
o All three axes have different foreshortening ratios.
o Provides most accurate 3D representation but is complex.

3. Oblique Projection
• A parallel projection where projection lines are at an angle to the projection plane.
• Used for quick 3D sketches and simple visualizations.
• One face is shown in true shape, while depth is distorted.

Types of Oblique Projection:

1. Cavalier Projection:
o Full-scale depth is preserved.
o Results in an elongated look.
2. Cabinet Projection:
o Depth is halved (50%) to reduce distortion.
o More realistic than Cavalier projection.

Comparison Table

Axonometric
Feature Orthographic Projection Oblique Projection
Projection
Parallel, perpendicular to Parallel, object is Parallel, but at an
Projection Type
the plane. rotated. angle.
Depth Depth is
No depth shown. Depth is distorted.
Representation foreshortened.
Yes, varies with Yes, depth axis is
Foreshortening No foreshortening.
type. scaled.
Less accurate, but
Realism Flat but accurate. More 3D-like.
quick to draw.
3D technical Quick sketches, simple
Best Used For Engineering, CAD.
drawings. 3D views.

Conclusion:

• Orthographic projection is best for technical drawings and CAD designs.

• Axonometric projection provides a 3D view without perspective distortion.
• Oblique projection is useful for simple 3D sketches but is less accurate.
 UNIT 3

1. RGB Color Model

The RGB color model is a widely used additive color model in which colors are created by
combining Red (R), Green (G), and Blue (B) light in different intensities. It is commonly
used in digital screens, computer graphics, and photography.

1. How RGB Works

• The RGB model is additive, meaning colors are created by adding light.
• Each color channel (Red, Green, Blue) has a value ranging from 0 to 255 (in 8-bit
representation).
• When all three colors are at maximum (255,255,255), the result is white.
• When all three colors are at minimum (0,0,0), the result is black.
• Different color combinations create various shades.

2. RGB Color Mixing Examples

Red (R) Green (G) Blue (B) Resulting Color

255 0 0 Red
0 255 0 Green
0 0 255 Blue
255 255 0 Yellow
0 255 255 Cyan
255 0 255 Magenta
128 128 128 Gray
255 255 255 White
0 0 0 Black

3. Advantages of RGB Model

Widely Used – Used in displays, televisions, cameras, and digital imaging.

Efficient for Screens – Matches how screens emit light.
High Flexibility – Can represent millions of colors (16.7 million in 24-bit color).

4. Disadvantages of RGB Model

 Not Ideal for Printing – Printers use the CMYK model instead.
Depends on Device Calibration – Colors may look different on different screens.

5. Applications of RGB Model

Computer and Mobile Screens – Used in LCD, LED, and OLED displays.
Digital Image Editing – Photoshop, GIMP, and other design software use RGB.
Gaming and Animation – Graphics rendering and visual effects.

Conclusion

The RGB color model is fundamental in digital graphics, allowing the creation of a vast
range of colors by mixing Red, Green, and Blue light. It is the standard color model for
electronic displays and multimedia applications.

2. CMYK Color Model

The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model used in printing and color
reproduction. It represents colors using four ink pigments:

• C – Cyan
• M – Magenta
• Y – Yellow
• K – Key (Black)

This model is essential for printers, magazines, brochures, and packaging designs.

1. How CMYK Works

• The CMYK model is subtractive, meaning it works by absorbing light rather than
emitting it.
• In printing, colors are created by layering cyan, magenta, and yellow inks.
• The more ink applied, the darker the color (since it absorbs more light).
• Pure black (K) is added because mixing C, M, and Y doesn’t produce a deep black,
only a dark brownish color.

2. CMYK Color Mixing Examples

Cyan (C) Magenta (M) Yellow (Y) Key (K) Resulting Color
100% 0% 0% 0% Cyan
0% 100% 0% 0% Magenta
0% 0% 100% 0% Yellow
100% 100% 0% 0% Blue
0% 100% 100% 0% Red
100% 0% 100% 0% Green
100% 100% 100% 100% Black
0% 0% 0% 0% White (no ink)

3. Advantages of CMYK Model

Standard for Printing – Used in professional printing and packaging.

Cost-Effective – Uses less ink compared to RGB-to-CMYK conversion.
Better for Paper – Works well on white surfaces where light reflects.

4. Disadvantages of CMYK Model

Not Ideal for Digital Screens – Screens use the RGB model instead.
Limited Color Range – CMYK cannot reproduce all RGB colors, especially bright neon
shades.

5. Applications of CMYK Model

🖨 Printing Industry – Magazines, newspapers, flyers, and packaging.

Graphic Design – Used in Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop, and CorelDRAW for print
projects.
Packaging and Branding – Ensures accurate color representation in print.

Conclusion

The CMYK color model is crucial for printing and color reproduction, as it effectively
translates digital designs into physical prints by using cyan, magenta, yellow, and black
inks.

3. HSV Color Model

The HSV color model is a color representation system based on human perception of
colors. It stands for:

• H – Hue (Color type)

• S – Saturation (Intensity of the color)
• V – Value (Brightness of the color)

HSV is commonly used in image editing, computer vision, and color manipulation, as it
provides a more intuitive way to describe colors than RGB.

1. Components of HSV Model

1. Hue (H) – Defines the Color Type

• Represents the actual color (red, blue, green, etc.).

• Measured in degrees (0°–360°) on the color wheel:
o 0° – Red
o 60° – Yellow
o 120° – Green
o 180° – Cyan
o 240° – Blue
o 300° – Magenta

2. Saturation (S) – Defines Color Intensity

• Measures how pure or faded the color is.

• Ranges from 0% (gray, no color) to 100% (full color).
• Example:
o 100% saturation → Pure red
o 50% saturation → Faded red (closer to gray)
o 0% saturation → Completely gray

3. Value (V) – Defines Brightness

• Represents how light or dark a color appears.

• Ranges from 0% (black) to 100% (full brightness).
• Example:
o 100% value → Bright color
o 50% value → Darker shade
o 0% value → Black

2. Advantages of HSV Model

More Intuitive than RGB – Easier to adjust color properties like brightness and
intensity.
 Better for Image Processing – Used in color filtering, segmentation, and adjustments.
Easier for Artists and Designers – Separates color components logically.

3. Disadvantages of HSV Model

Not Used for Screens – Digital screens use RGB instead.

Non-Uniform Color Space – Small changes in hue can result in big color shifts.

4. Applications of HSV Model

Graphic Design & Photo Editing – Used in Photoshop, GIMP, and digital painting
software.
Computer Vision & AI – Helps in object detection and image segmentation.
Data Visualization – Used in color mapping for scientific and heatmap visuals.

Conclusion

The HSV color model is a human-friendly way to represent colors, making it ideal for
image processing, color correction, and design applications where hue, saturation, and
brightness adjustments are needed.

4. HLS Color Model

The HLS color model is a color representation system based on human perception, standing
for:

• H – Hue (Color type)

• L – Lightness (Brightness or luminance)
• S – Saturation (Intensity or vividness of the color)

HLS is similar to HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) but differs in how brightness is calculated,
making it useful in image processing, color adjustments, and digital graphics.

1. Components of HLS Model

1. Hue (H) – Defines the Basic Color

 • Represents the actual color (red, blue, green, etc.).
• Measured in degrees (0°–360°) on a color wheel:
o 0° – Red
o 60° – Yellow
o 120° – Green
o 180° – Cyan
o 240° – Blue
o 300° – Magenta

2. Lightness (L) – Defines Brightness

• Determines how light or dark a color appears.

• Ranges from 0% (black) to 100% (white), with 50% being normal brightness.
• Example:
o 0% lightness → Black
o 50% lightness → Normal color
o 100% lightness → White

3. Saturation (S) – Defines Color Intensity

• Controls how pure or dull a color is.

• Ranges from 0% (gray, no color) to 100% (fully saturated color).
• Example:
o 100% saturation → Pure red
o 50% saturation → Faded red (closer to gray)
o 0% saturation → Completely gray

2. Difference Between HLS and HSV

HLS (Hue, Lightness,

Feature HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value)
Saturation)
Lightness/Brightness Lightness is the average of Value is the maximum of
Calculation max & min RGB values. RGB values.
0% (Black), 50% (Normal 0% (Black) to 100% (Full
Brightness Scale
Color), 100% (White). brightness).
More balanced between light Can be skewed towards
Color Representation
and dark shades. brighter colors.
Image editing, shading, and Color detection, graphics
Usage
color balancing. rendering, and digital screens.

3. Advantages of HLS Model

More Balanced Lightness – Easier to adjust shading and highlights.

Better for Color Adjustments – Used in design software for color correction.
Works Well for Artists and Designers – Mimics how humans perceive light and color.
4. Disadvantages of HLS Model

Not Used for Digital Screens – RGB is preferred for displays.

Non-Uniform Color Space – Some color transitions may not be smooth.

5. Applications of HLS Model

Graphic Design & Digital Art – Helps in shading and color correction.
Data Visualization – Used in scientific visualizations for color mapping.
Photo Editing – Adjusts brightness and saturation effectively.

Conclusion

The HLS color model is an intuitive way to manipulate colors, making it ideal for image
processing, shading, and artistic design where lightness and color balance are important.