Computer Networks

Network
A Computer Network, or simply a Network, is a collection of
computers and other hardware components interconnected by
communication channels that allow sharing of resources and
information
More than one computer interconnected through a
communication medium for information interchange is called a
computer network.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable
of sharing and exchanging information.

Advantages:

✓ We can share resources such as printers and scanners.

✓ Can share data and access file from any machine.
✓ Software can be installed on server instead of each machine.
✓ Save cost.
✓ Can communicate with each other via email or chatting.

Disadvantages:

✓ Expensive setup.
✓ Insecure.
✓ Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses.
✓ Depends on the Main File Server

Need for networking

1. Resource sharing - files and peripherals

i) Sharing of files and software
ii) Sharing Peripherals
iii) Sharing storage
2. Improving communication
3. Reliability of Data
4. Reduced Communication Cost
5. Central Storage of Data

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 EVOLUTION OF NETWORK

The network did not evolve in a single day, rather, it took decades to become more powerful,
efficient and reliable. The network has passed through several stages which are mentioned below:

 ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network): ARPANET, which was

jointly designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and US
Department of Defense (DoD), was the first network and came into existence in 1969. It
was a project that connected a handful of computers at different universities and US DoD
for sharing of data and messages and playing long-distance games, and socializing with
people to share their views. The development of ARPANET led to the development of
today's internet.
 NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): In the mid-80's, another federal
agency, NSFNET, created a new network which was more capable than ARPANET. Its
main aim was to use network only for academic research and not for any private business
activity. Later many private companies combined their own private networks with
ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable and broad network-the Internet. It is the
internet that links two or more networks to make a large network for sharing information
and messages.
ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS=INTERNET

Internet: In the 1990's, internet, which is a network of networks, came into existence. The internet
has evolved from ARPANET. The computers are connected through World Wide Web that
comprises a large network and shares a common communication protocol (Transmission Control
Protocol-Internet Protocol, TCP/IP). It allows computers of different types to exchange
information and is known as internet. Millions of domestic, business and government networks
are connected with each other for the purpose of sharing files, data, email, etc. Most of the
computers are not connected directly to the internet. Instead, they are connected to smaller
networks which are further connected to a backbone network through gateways.

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Network of networks makes the internet.
HOW DOES INTERNET WORK

One of the greatest things about the internet is that nobody really owns it. It is a global collection
of networks, both big and small. These networks connect together in many different ways to form
the single entity that we know as internet. In fact, the very name comes from this idea of
interconnected networks.
The Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992, oversees the formation of the
policies and protocols that define how we use and interact with the internet.

Every computer that is connected to the internet is part of a network, even the one in our home.
For example, we may use a modem and dial a local number to connect to an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). At work, a computer may be part of a Local Area Network (LAN), but it most
likely still connects to the internet using an ISP that the company has contracted with. When it
connects to the ISP, it becomes part of their network. The ISP may then connect to a larger network
and become part of their network. The internet is simply a network of networks.

Most large communication companies have their own dedicated backbones connecting various
regions. In each region, the company has a Point of Presence (POP). The POP is a place for local
users to access the company’s network, often through a local phone number or dedicated line. The
amazing thing here is that there is no overall controlling network. Instead, there are several
highlevel networks connecting to each other through Network Access Points or NAPs.

POP and NAP

Gateway: Gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. A backbone is a central
interconnecting structure that connects one or more networks just like the trunk of a tree. At the
source computer the message to be sent is broken down into small parts called packets. Each packet
is given a serial number, e.g., 1, 2, 3. All these packets are sent to the destination computer. The
destination computer receives the packets in random order (10 may come before 1). The packets
are reassembled in the order of their number and message is restored.

How it functions smoothly: Every computer connected to the internet uses the same set of rules
for communication. A set of rules is called protocol. Communication protocol used by internet is
TCP/IP. The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) part is responsible for dividing the message
into packets on the source computer and reassembling them at the destination computer. The IP

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(Internet Protocol) is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer so that
the packet is sent to its proper destination.

Interspace: Interspace is a software that allows multiple users in a client-server environment to

communicate with each other by sending and receiving data of various types such as data files,
video, audio and textual data in a 3-D environment. It facilitates online real-time exchange of data.
Interspace is the most advanced term of communication available on the internet today.

IP Address:
The computers connected to a network also need to follow some rules to communicate with each
other. These sets of rules are known as protocols. Several types of protocols are used for
communication over networks. However, the most common one is the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP. A network using TCP/IP is known as a TCP/IP network.

The internet is an example of the TCP/IP network. Therefore it becomes important that each device
should have a unique address to identify it on a TCP/IP network. This unique address is known as
IP address. IP address is short for Internet Protocol (IP) address. An IP address is an Identifier for
a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. Networks using the TCP/IP protocol route messages
based on the IP address of the destination.

There are two main versions of IP addresses in use

1 IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4): IPv4 is the older and more widely deployed version of IP
addressing it uses a 32-bit addressing scheme which are structured as a series of four sets of
numbers, separated by periods, for example 192.168.0.3. Each set can range from 0 to 255 Due to
the growing number of devices connecting to the internet, the available pool of IPv4 addresses is
becoming depleted

2 IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6): IPv6 introduced to address the limitation of IPv4 It uses
128-bit addressing scheme, represented as eight sets of hexadecimal digits separated by colons for
example. 2001: 4d10:3240:198d:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

IPv6 provides a significantly larger address space; allowing for trillions of unique IP addresses.
The IP address of a computer is assigned by the internet Service Provider (ISP) whose internet
connection is used on that computer.

Elementary Terminology of Networks

 Nodes (Workstations): The term node refers to computers that are attached to a network
and are seeking to share resources.
 Server: A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware resources
on the network.
A server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other computers
over a local network or the Internet. Servers are of two types:
a) Dedicated and b) Non dedicated servers
a) Dedicated Servers: These are generally used on big network installations where one
computer is reserved for server's job. It helps all nodes access data, software and hardware

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 resources. Since it does not double up as a workstation but only manages the network, so
it is known as a dedicated server and such type of networks are called master- slave
networks.
b) Non dedicated servers: In small networks, a workstation can double up as a server.
These servers are known as non-dedicated servers. The small networks using such a server
are known as Peer to Peer networks.

 Network Interface Unit (NIU) (MAC Address): A network interface unit is an interpreter
that helps in establishing communication between the server and the client. It is also called
network adapter, LAN adapter or network interface controller.

 A Network Interface Unit is a computer hardware component that connects a

computer to a computer network.
 Every computer connected with network must have an NIU installed in it.
 A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique identifier assigned by the
manufacture to NIC for use as a network address in communication. MAC address
is a 12 digit hexadecimal number.
 Also known as Terminal Access Point (TAP) and Network Interface Card (NIC).

 IP Address: Every machine on a TCP /IP Network has a unique identifying number called
an IP Address.

 Domain Name: It is a way to identify and locate the computers connected to the internet.
It must be unique.

Data Communication
The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and Communication. Data can be any text,
image, audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an act of sending or receiving data. Thus, data
communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more networked or connected devices. These
devices must be capable of sending and receiving data over a communication medium. Examples of such
devices include personal computers, mobile phones, laptops, etc.
 Sender: A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of sending data over a network.
It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkie-talkie, video recording device, etc.
 Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of receiving data from the
network. It can be any computer, printer, laptop, mobile phone, television, etc. In computer
communication, the sender and receiver are known as nodes in a network.

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  Message: It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between the sender and the
receiver. Messages can be in the form of text, number, image, audio, video, multimedia, etc.

 Communication media (Transmission Medium): It is the path through which the message travels
between source and destination. It is also called medium or link which is either wired or wireless.
For example, a television cable, telephone cable, Ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc.

 Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating parties in order to
have successful and reliable data communication.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF SENDING DATA ACROSS NETWORK

There are several ways of sending data from one node to another through network. It can be in the
form of calls, messages, etc. By using various types of switching techniques, we can establish the
connection/communication.

Network Switching
A network is made up of several interconnected nodes. There can be a point-to-point connection
or star topology between pairs of devices, but both are not relevant for a large network. Hence,
various switching techniques are used to transfer packets of data from one port of a node to another.
A switched network is made up of a series of interconnected nodes called switches.

Switching Techniques
The main goal of networking is the reliable exchange of data or information among several
interconnected nodes. For the delivery of data with accuracy, various types of switching techniques
are used, namely:
1. Circuit Switching 2. Packet Switching 3. Message Switching

The technique of sending data across the network is known as Switching technique. The three
types of techniques used are circuit switching, packet switching and message switching.

Circuit Switching
This provides end-to-end connection between two computers. Circuit switching is established
usually in a telephone network where one person is making a call and another is receiving a call.
In telephone system, the communication must be established between the two participants, i.e., the
sender and the receiver. The circuit is established between these two participants before the transfer
of data takes place.

Circuit Switching

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In this technique, the entire link remains dedicated and no other user can use it even if the path
remains idle. The following actions take place during circuit switching:
1. A request signal is sent by the sender to set up the connection with the receiver. It
establishes a physical connection between the two participants.
2. All intermediate nodes are identified. These nodes are also called switching nodes.
3. If the destination node is available, it sends back the acknowledgement of receiving a
signal. Hence, data transmission begins.
4. When the data transmission is complete, the call can be terminated.
Circuit switching is a connection-oriented service. In this technique, there is a dedicated link
‘between the sender and the receiver and no other call can be made during this link, even if
the link remains idle.
Packet Switching

In packet switching technique, the entire data is divided into small fragments called packets. Each
packet is of a fixed size, usually 128 bytes or 512 bytes. Packet switching is similar to post office
operation. Each packet has a source address as well as destination address (IP address) for being
transmitted, in the same way as a postman delivers a letter to a specific destination address. As
there is no direct connection established between the sender and the receiver, each packet follows
different routes and, therefore, the packets are delivered in a random order at the destination
address. It is the TCP protocol which then arranges all received packets in a sequential order.
During the transfer of packets, each packet has to pass through several intermediate nodes, so each
intermediate node checks for destination IP address. If the packet matches with the node address,
it is received; otherwise it is passed on to the next node until it reaches the destination IP address.

Packet Switching
Packet switching offers a connectionless service. Data is fragmented into small packets and
each packet is of fixed size in packet switching technology.

Message Switching
In message switching, the sender sends the data to a switching office first, which is then stored in
its buffer. It then checks the available link and if it is free, the data is relayed to another switching
office. This process goes on until the data is sent to the destination (receiver). As the data is first
stored in a buffer and then sent to the next switching office, it is also called store and forward
switching technique.

Message switching is a store and forward switching technique where there is no direct

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connection between the sender and the receiver.

Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

1. The circuit switching reserves the required bandwidth in advance, whereas packet
switching uses bandwidth as and when required by the packets to be transmitted.
2. Circuit switching is a fast technology as compared to packet switching which is a slow
mechanism of transferring packets from sender to receiver.
3. Circuit switching requires a dedicated path. Once the connection is established, the
communication path is entirely dedicated to it until the data is completely transferred from
sender to receiver, whereas in packet switching, packets can use any dynamic path.
4. In circuit switching, if the path is overloaded, the call is blocked and communication is
delayed. But in packet switching, packets are allocated to different paths.
5. Circuit-switched networks are used for phone calls and packet-switched networks handle
data.
6. Packet switching is more efficient because the cost of the link is shared by many users.
7. In circuit switching, the telephone message is sent unbroken. The message is received in
the same order as it is originally sent. In packet switching, the message is broken into small
packets which are randomly sent from source and received in random order at destination,
which is then sequentially arranged.

DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

Channel: A channel is a communication path through which the data is transmitted from the
sender device to the receiver device.

Baud: The number of changes in a signal per second is known as baud. It is the measuring unit of
the data transfer rate. Technically, baud refers to a number of discrete signal elements transmitted
per second. 1 baud represents only 1 signal change per second and is equivalent to 1 bit per second.

Bits per second: It is the measuring unit of speed at which data transfer takes place.

Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a communication channel in a given
period of time (1 second) is termed as bandwidth. The measuring unit is hertz (Hz), where 103 Hz
= 1 Kilo Hertz (KHz), 103 KHz = 1 Mega Hertz (MHz).

If the highest frequency is 80 Hz and lowest frequency is 50 Hz then the bandwidth of a signal:

B=80-50
=30 Hz

Data and Signals: Information that is stored within computer systems and transferred over a
computer network can be divided into two categories—data and signals. Data are entities that are
stored in the form of 0’s and 1’s, which convey some special meaning to the computer system.
When this data is transmitted from one place to another, it is converted into signal. Signals are the
electric or electromagnetic encoding of data and are used to transmit data.

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Communication/Transmission Media: It is a means of communication or access (lignes of
communication) set up between two organizations to exchange data/information. Communication
media is the way of transmitting the signal from one place to another. Communication media is
also known as transmission media. It plays an important role in sending and receiving of data to
and from the sender and receiver.

Data Transfer Rate: It is the amount of data transferred in one direction over a link divided by
the time taken to transfer it in bits per second (bps). The various measuring units are bits per second
(bps) and bytes per second (Bps) or baud, kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (mbps),
gigabits per second (gbps), terabits per second (tbps.)

NETWORK DEVICES

Modem: A MODEM (Modulator DEModulator) is an electronic device that enables a computer

to transmit data over telephone lines. It is a device used to convert digital signals into analog signals
and vice versa. There are two types of modems, namely internal modem and external modem.

Working of Modem
We know that computers store and process data in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit data
from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet, digital data is converted to an analog
signal and the medium (be it free-space or a physical media) carries the signal to the receiver.
There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes. The modem at the sender's
end acts as a Modulator that converts the digital data into analog signals while the modem at the
receiver's end acts as a Demodulator that converts the analog signals into digital data for the
destination node to understand.

RJ-45 Connector: RJ-45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. The RJ-45
(Registered Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in networking and telecommunications
applications. They are used primarily for connecting LANs, particularly Ethernet.

RJ-45 Connector
RJ-45 is a short term for Registered Jack-45. It is an eight-wire connector used to connect
computers on LANs, especially Ethernets.

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Ethernet Card: It is a hardware device that helps in the connection of nodes within a network.
Ethernet card is also known as a network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card).
It is a card that allows computers to communicate over a computer network. On Ethernet card, a
physical address of each communicating computer is mentioned. Physical address is known as
MAC address.

Hub: It is multi-port and unintelligent network device which simply transfers data from one port
of the network to another. A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together
with different ports. When the packet reaches one port, it is copied to all other ports of the hub
without changing the destination address in the frame. Rather, it simply copies the data to all of
the nodes connected to the hub.
Hubs can be either active or passive. Hubs can usually support 8, 12 or 24 RJ-45 ports.

But the problem with hub is that it is not an intelligent device. It shares bandwidth with all the
attached devices and broadcasts the data, i.e., sends the data frames to all the connected nodes, as
it does not remember devices/computers connected to it. Also, it cannot filter the data and causes
unnecessary traffic jams.
A hub can both send as well as receive information, but only one task at a time. However, a hub
is an inexpensive way to connect multiple nodes/devices to network.

Switch: A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to interconnect computers or
devices on a network. It filters and forwards data packets across a network. It is also a multi-port
device but with some intelligence and so the data packets received from one port of network are
refreshed and delivered to the other port of the network. The main difference between hub and
switch is that hub replicates what it receives on one port onto all the other ports, while switch keeps
a record of the MAC addresses of the devices attached to it.

Switch
Bridge: A bridge is a device that works on the physical layer as well as on data link layer. A
network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI
model. Bridges relay frames between two originally separate segments. When a frame enters a
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bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal but also checks the physical address of the
destination and forwards the new copy only to that port.
An important advantage of using a bridge is that it is a smarter hub as it can filter network traffic
on the basis of the MAC addresses.

Bridge
A bridge is a device that links two segments together of the original network.

Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. In internet, several networks
are communicating with each other and each network has a different configuration. In order to
make reliable communication, there must be a device that helps in communicating.
Gateway is a device which establishes an intelligent connection between a local area network and
external networks with completely different structures.

Gateway
Gateway is a device which establishes an intelligent connection between a local area network
and external networks with completely different structures.
Gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.

Repeater: A repeater is a device that operates only on the physical layer of the OSI model. As a
signal travels a fixed distance, before attenuation of the signal, a repeater is used which amplifies
and restores signals for long-distance transmission. A repeater is an electronic device that receives
a signal before it becomes too weak and regenerates the original signal.
Also, it is a two-port network device that strengthens the signal intensity and connects two identical
networks. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable runs longer
than 100 metres. A repeater does not change the functionality of the network; instead, it makes the
signal strong before it degrades. Repeaters are also extensively used in broadcasting where they
are termed as translators or boosters.

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 Working of a Repeater
Repeater is a device that amplifies a signal that is transmitted across the network so that the
signal is received in the same way as it is sent.

Router: A routers is a networking device that forwards data packets from the source machine to
the destination machine by using the shortest path. Routers are used at the network layer, which is
the third layer of the OSI model.
A router uses IP address to connect a local area network to the internet Compared to a hub or a
switch, a router has advanced capabilities as it can analyze the data being carried over a network,
decide/alter how it is packaged, and send it to another network of a different type. For example,
suppose data has been divided into packets of a certain size and these packets are to be carried
over a different type of network which cannot handle bigger packets. In such a case, the data is to
be repackaged as smaller packets and then sent over the network by a router.

Router
A router is a networking device that helps in forwarding packets from one machine to another.
Wi-Fi Card: A Wi-Fi card is either an internal or external Local Area Network adapter with a
built-in wireless radio and antenna. A Wi-Fi card is used in a desktop computer that enables a user
to establish an internet connection. Wi-Fi cards are known as wireless fidelity cards as they allow
the user to set up connection without any wire. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) cards are widely used in
notebook computers due to their highly portable nature. The most common Wi-Fi cards used in
desktop computers are PCI-Express Wi-Fi cards made to fit the PCI- Express card slots on the
motherboard.

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Firewall
A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between your computer and the rest of the
network (where the hackers are!)

If you wish to protect your whole LAN from hackers out on the Internet, you would place a firewall
between the LAN and the Internet connection.

A firewall blocks unauthorised connections being made to your computer or LAN. Normal data is
allowed through the firewall (e.g. e-mails or web pages) but all other data is blocked.

Types of Firewall
Network Firewall: If the firewall is placed between two or more networks and monitors the network traffic
between different networks, it is termed as Network Firewall.
Host-based Firewall: If the firewall is placed on a computer and monitors the network traffic to and from
that computer, it is called a host-based firewall.
Difference between Hub, Switch and Router
S. No Hub Switch Router

1. Hub prefers half-duplex Switch prefers full-duplex It is full duplex in nature.

transmission method. transmission method.

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 2. It functions based on It functions based on MAC It functions based on IP
broadcasting. addresses. addresses.

3. Hub is commonly used to A switch is used by LAN. A router is utilised by LAN

link components of a as well as MAN.
LAN

4. Hubs are not smart A Switch is a smart and wise Routers are basically tiny
gadgets because they pass device as it gives a message to computers that accomplish
on everything obtained on a specific device by scanning a variety of intelligent jobs.
one connection to all other the address. They can also help in
connections. building address tables that
support routing decisions.

5. In a hub, we need a single Here also, we require a single It demands a minimum of

network to connect. network to connect. two networks to connect.

6. It is inexpensive as It is an expensive device than It is a more expensive

compared to switch and a hub. device than a hub and
router. switch.

Difference Between Router and Gateway

Parameters Router Gateway

Networks A router routes various data A gateway acts as a connection between two
packets via a similar set of very dissimilar networks.
networks.

Associated You can also call a router an You can also call a gateway a voice gateway,
Terms internet router or a wireless proxy server, or gateway router.
router.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
A computer network may be small or big depending upon the number of computers and other
network devices linked together Thus, networks vary in size, complexity and geographical spread
A computer network can be on a table, in a room, building city, country, across continents or
around the world. Computer networks can logically be divided into two types:
1. Client-Server network

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2. Peer-to-Peer network

Client Server network: In Client-Server network, multiple clients or workstations are connected
to at least one central server. A server is a powerful computer with all applications and hardware
installed in it and a client is a computer which seeks any resource from another computer. When
clients need access to these resources, they access them from the server. This network is used for
larger networks.
Peer-to-Peer network: In Peer-to-Peer network, all nodes in the network have equivalent
capability and function as both client and server. In this network, all workstations are connected
together for sharing devices, information or data. This network is ideal for small networks where
there is no need of dedicated servers.

On the basis of geographical spread, networks may be classified as:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN): PANs are small networks used to establish communication
between a computer and other handheld devices in the proximity of up to 10 metres using wired
USB connectivity or wireless systems like Bluetooth or Infrared. PANs are used to connect
computers, laptops, mobiles and other IT-enabled devices to transfer files including emails, digital
photos, audio and video, etc. The Bluetooth technology implements PAN. PAN may include
wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth-enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV
remotes.

Personal Area Network

The network that belongs to a single person or user is known as PAN.

Local Area Network (LAN): LAN is a privately owned computer network covering a small
geographical area (small physical area), like a home, office or a building such as a school. It can
cover an area spread over a few metres to a radius of a few kilometres.

Occasionally, a LAN can span a group of nearby buildings. In addition to operating in a limited
space, a LAN is owned, controlled and managed by a single person or organization. A LAN can

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be set up using wired media (UTP cables, coaxial cables, etc.) or wireless media (Infrared, Radio
waves). If a LAN is set up using unguided media, it is known as WLAN (wireless LAN). The key
purpose of a LAN is to share resources. LAN users can share data, programs, printer, disk, modem,
etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Data transfer rate speed over a Local Area Network can vary from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps. LAN is
comparatively secure as only authentic users in the network can access the computers or shared
resources.
These types of networks can be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN quite high and usually
varies from 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN is larger than a LAN and can cover a city and its
surrounding areas. A MAN usually interconnects a number of LANs and individual computers. It
also shares the computing resources among users. All types of communication media (guided and
unguided) are used to set up a MAN. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity
such as a government body or a large corporation. A good example of MAN is the interconnected
offices of a Multinational Corporation (MNC) or cable television networks available in the whole
city.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN is a telecommunication network. This type of network
spreads over a large geographical area across countries and continents. WANs are generally used
to interconnect several other types of networks such as LANs, MANs, etc. They facilitate fast and
efficient exchange of information at a high speed and low cost. A WAN uses common carriers like
satellite systems, telephone lines, etc. WAN can cover an area with a radius spanning hundreds of

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kilometres. A network of ATMs, banks, government offices, international organizations’ offices,
etc., spread over a country, continent or covering many continents are examples of WAN.

All types of communication media (guided and unguided) are used to set up a WAN. The best
known example of a WAN is the internet. The internet is the largest WAN spanning the entire
planet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

The following table summarizes the characteristics of PANs, LANs, MANs and WANs.

Comparing LAN, MAN and WAN

As we have seen, computer networks can be classified into LAN, MAN and WAN categories on
the basis of their geographical domains. A WAN extends over a large geographical area, such as
states or countries. A LAN is confined to relatively smaller areas, such as an office, a building,
etc. A MAN usually covers an entire city. It uses the LAN technology. The most common example
of MAN is the cable television network. Thus, the basic points of difference between LAN and
WAN are as follows:
 The distance between the nodes in a LAN connection is limited to a specific range. The
upper limit is approximately 10 kilometres and the lower limit is one metre. On the other
hand, WANs are spread across thousands of kilometres in different countries or regions.
 LANs operate between speeds of 1 mega bit per second (mbps) and 10 mbps while WANs
operate at speeds of less than 1 mbps. To achieve speeds of several hundred mbps, it is
advisable to use the optical fibre technology.

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  The error rate in LANs is lower than that in WANs because of the short distances involved
in LANs. The error rate in LANs is approximately one thousand times less than that in
WANs.
 As LANs are limited by distance, an entire LAN is usually under the control of a single
entity, such as an organization. On the other hand, WANs are usually operated and
controlled by multiple organizations.
Thus, we can say that in comparison to WANs, LANs cover a limited area but they operate with
high speed and low error rates.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology is a way of connecting devices with each other either physically or logically. Two or
more devices make a link and two or more links form a topology. It is basically a geometrical
representation of how a network is laid out.

Topology is a way of connecting several devices with each other on a network.

Types of Topologies

Mesh Topology: In mesh topology each computer is connected with the other computer. There is
a point-to-point link between each dedicated node (workstation). In this type of topology, the link
carries traffic only between the two connected devices. A fully connected mesh network has n(n–
1)/2 links, where n is the total number of connecting nodes.
For example, if there are five computers and each is connected with the other one, then there will
be 5(5–1)/2=10 links.

Mesh Topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Each communicating device carries its own data through its own dedicated link, hence
eliminating traffic problems.
 A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not affect the entire
system.
 Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

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  There is the advantage of privacy or security of data. When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users
from gaining access to messages.
 Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed
to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to
discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Mesh topology is highly expensive to set up and involves high maintenance costs because
of the amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
 The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.
 Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.

When there is a point-to-point link between each computer in a network, it forms mesh
topology.

Star Topology: In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central controller
called hub or switch. (A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together).
Unlike mesh topology, the devices in star topology send and receive data indirectly; the data passes
to and from the hub. If the data is required to be sent from one computer and received by another
computer, then this can be accomplished only by the central controller as each data is first sent to
the hub, which then relays that data to the destination computer. Most popular and widely used
LAN technology, Ethernet, currently operates in Star Topology.

Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

 Fewer wires are required as compared to mesh topology which, thus, reduces the number
of input/output ports.
 Installation and maintenance of network is easy and takes less time.

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  It is easy to detect faults in this network as all computers are dependent on the central hub.
This means that any problem which makes the network non-functioning can be traced to
the central hub.
 The rate of data transfer is fast as all the data packets or messages are transferred through
central hub.
 As the nodes are not connected to each other, any problem in one node does not hamper
the performance of other nodes in the network.
 Removal or addition of any node in star topology can take place easily without affecting
the entire performance of the network.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Extra hardware is required for installation of central controller known as hub.
 All nodes of star topology are dependent on central hub and, therefore, any problem in the
hub makes the entire network shut down.
 The performance of the entire network is directly dependent on the performance of the hub.
If the server is slow, it will cause the entire network to slow down.
 More cabling is required in star topology as compared to any other topology (ring, bus,
tree) as all nodes are directly connected to a central hub.

Bus Topology
Bus topology is a multipoint configuration, i.e., several devices are connected to a main long cable
which acts as a backbone. Nodes are connected by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
between the long cable and devices and taps are the connectors that are punctured inside the main
cable. The data flows from one end of the cable to the other.
However, as the signal travels a long distance, it becomes weaker and weaker.

Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

 Nodes can be connected or removed easily from bus network.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
 Bus network is easy to implement and can be extended up to a certain limit.
 It works well for small networks.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 If there is a fault or break in the main cable, the entire network shuts down.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Fault isolation is difficult to detect if the entire network shuts down.

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  When the network is required in more than one building, bus network cannot be used.
 The signal becomes weaker if number of nodes becomes large.
 Performance degradation occurs with the increased number of nodes.
 Collision of data can take place because several nodes can transmit data to each other at
one time.

There is a main cable which is connected to several workstations through taps. Collision of
data can take place in bus topology.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each node is connected to two other nodes on either side of it, forming a ring
network. It shows the line configuration in which each node is connected to one predecessor node
and one successor node. Signal is transmitted only in one direction along the entire ring in a circular
fashion. In ring topology, each device is incorporated with a repeater to strengthen the signal as a
signal passes through all nodes in the entire network. When the data is transmitted from one node
to its recipient node, then the intermediate node regenerates the signal and passes the signal to the
destined node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 A central server is not required in ring topology as the data is passed between two nodes
which then pass through the entire network.
 The data is transmitted in one direction only and, hence, the transmission rate increases.
 The adding or removing of network nodes is easy as the process requires changing only
two connections.
 The configuration makes it easy to identify faults in network nodes.
 In this topology, each node transmits the data to its next node in a ring.
 It is relatively cheaper as compared to star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 If there is a fault in a single node, it can cause the entire network to fail.
 The movement or changes made to network nodes affect the entire network’s
performance.

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  Transmission speed becomes slower with an increase in the number of nodes.
 If there is a fault or break in a cable to which all other nodes are connected, the entire
network shuts down.
 For proper communication between each node, it is required that each computer must be
turned on.
In ring topology, each workstation is connected with the predecessor node as well as with the
successor node and, thus, forms a ring. Data is transmitted only in one direction.

Tree Topology
In tree topology, all or some of the devices are connected to the central hub, called an active hub,
and some of the devices are connected to the secondary hub, which may be an active hub or passive
hub. An active hub contains the repeater that regenerates the signal when it becomes weaker with
longer distances. A passive hub simply provides a connection between all other connecting nodes.

Tree Topology
Advantages of Tree Topology
 The tree topology is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot be implemented individually.
(b) It is most suited in networking multiple departments of a university or corporation,
where each unit (star segment) functions separately, and is also connected with the main
node (root node).
 The advantages of centralization that are achieved in a star topology are inherited by the
individual star segments in a tree network.
 Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the central bus. Thus, failing of one segment
does not affect the rest of the network.
 Fault identification is easy.
 The network can be expanded by the addition of secondary nodes. Thus, scalability is
achieved.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends heavily on the
bus. Its failure affects the entire network.

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  Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are high. Also,
configuration is difficult in comparison to other topologies.
 Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on the capacity of
the central bus and on the cable type.

In tree topology, the main central hub is connected to the secondary hub through which all
devices are connected with each other. Tree topology is just like a parent-child relationship.

Factors are taken into consideration before selecting a topology which are as follows:
 Cost
 Flexibility
 Reliability

Point-to-Point (P-P) Link

A P-P link, also known as a dedicated link, is used to connect two nodes in a network. The function
of P-P link is to send and receive data over a network. In a P-P network, each workstation receives
data from only one transmitter and each transmitter transmits data only to one receiver.

For better performance, the transmit and receive operations can occur over separate cables or wires,
or they can occur in turns over the same wire by using different transmission techniques. A P-P
link can be established in several ways. The simplest way is to install a P-P link between each pair
of computers over a network.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Communication media is also known as transmission media through which data or signal is
transferred between two communicating devices, i.e., from one system to another system, through
wires or without wires. If the data is sent across network through wires, it is called guided media
and if the data is sent without wires, it is called unguided media.

Communication media is a transmission media used for sending data or signal across the
network.

Types of Communication/Transmission Media

All communication/transmission media can be divided into two categories:

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  Guided Media (Wired Media): Guided media is also known as physical or conducted
media. These media use wires for transmitting data. Various wired connections are twisted
pair wire, coaxial cable and fibre optic cable.
 Unguided Media (Wireless Media): A transmission media that does not require the use of
cables for transmission of data is known as unguided media. Wireless transmission is also
known as unguided media or non-physical media as the transmission takes place through
various types of electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, terrestrial microwave
transmissions, satellite transmissions, cellular radio systems, infrared transmissions, etc.

Guided Media or Wired Networking Technologies

Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable is the oldest, simplest and the most common type of conducted media. It is
made of two plastic insulated copper wires which are twisted together to form a single wire. Each
wire is 1 mm thick. Out of these two wires, only one carries the actual signal while the other is
used for ground reference. The wires so twisted are helpful in avoiding interference from the
nearby similar pairs, which is known as crosstalk. Twisted pair can be specified as Category 1–5
and is abbreviated as Cat 1–5.
Category 6 twisted pair can support data transmission as high as 200 mbps for 100 metres while
Category 7 twisted pair can support still higher data rates.

Twisted pair comes in two varieties:

 Shielded twisted pair (STP): STP cables are covered in metal foil. This makes them
indifferent to noise and crosstalk.

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  Unshielded twisted pair (UTP): UTP has seven categories, each suitable for a specific use.
In computer networks, mostly Cat-5, Cat-5E and Cat-6 cables are used. UTP cables are
connected by RJ-45 connectors.

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

 It is simple to use.
 It is inexpensive and does not require skilled personnel.
 It is less susceptible to electrical interference caused by nearby equipment or wires in a
telephone system. Signals can travel several kilometres without amplification when twisted
pair wires are used.
 These media can be used for both analog and digital data transmission. The bandwidth
depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance travelled, but several megabits per
second can be achieved for a few kilometres in many cases.
 If a portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged, the entire network is not shut.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

 STP wire is physically larger and more expensive than twisted pair wire.
 STP is more difficult to connect to a terminating block.
 It easily picks up noise signals which results in higher error rates when the line length
exceeds 100 metres.
 Being thin in size, it is likely to break easily.
 It can support 19,200 bps up to 50 feet on RS-232 port.

Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable is generally called a coax wire. It consists of insulated copper wires surrounded
by a braided metal shield and covered in a plastic jacket. Coax cables are capable of carrying
higher frequency signals than that of twisted pair cables. The wrapped structure provides it a good
shield against noise and crosstalk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
Coaxial cable also comes in two primary physical types: thin coaxial cable and thick coaxial cable.
There are three categories of Coax cables, namely RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet) and
RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Guide. Coax cables are widely used for internet
connections and cable televisions.

Coaxial Cable
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable.

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  It is useful for transmitting analog as well as digital data across the network. For analog
data transmission, 75 ohm broadband coaxial is used and for digital transmission, 50 ohm
baseband cable is used.
 It is widely used for cable television and internet connections.
 Coax are used for transmitting several channels simultaneously, i.e., they are helpful in
broadband transmission.
 Coaxial cable has excellent noise immunity because of thick covering outside the insulated
wires.
 Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away.
 It is relatively inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cable.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Thick coaxial cables do not bend easily and thus are difficult to install.
 It is expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. It is the newest form of guided
media. Several glass fibres are bundled together and are encased in an insulated covering. Light
signals travel into the fibre optic cable at one end and are received at the other end. When the light
enters the fibre optic, the light pulse inside the cable hits the outer walls of the wire at a similar
angle, which helps in moving the light wave forward. The outer surface of the glass wire provides
just the right angle reflection to keep the light bouncing back and forth along the length of cable.
The light source used in this process is light emitting diode (LED).
Optical fibres may be single mode or multimode. Single mode optic fibre transmits only single
light width but multimode fibre uses multiple light paths.

Advantages of Fibre Optic

 Fibre optic typically offers better bandwidth and can carry more information at once.
 As the signal travels in the form of light, there is less attenuation and signal degradation.
 Optical fibre wires are made of glass, so there is little risk of fire because of absence of
spark hazards.
 Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
 Lighter weight makes fibre easier to install.
 It does not leak signals, so it is immune to eavesdropping.
 A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration.
 Fibre optic cables are also used in research and development.

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Disadvantages of Fibre Optic
 A highly skilled labour is required for its installation and maintenance.
 It is relatively expensive as compared to other guided media.
 As fibre optic is made of glass, they can be easily broken.
 As light travels in a straight line, two fibres are needed if we need bidirectional
communication.

Unguided Media or Wireless Networking Technologies

Features of Unguided Media:
1. Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
2. Transmission can be either directional or omnidirectional.
(a) Directional
 transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
 transmitter and receiver must be aligned
(b) Omnidirectional
 signal spreads out in all directions
 can be received by many antennas

Microwave
Microwave signals are used to transmit data without the use of cable. It is a line-of-sight
transmission as signal travels in a straight line. In microwave communication, two directional
parabolic antennas are mounted on towers, buildings or hills to send and receive signals through
air. However, they must be properly aligned with each other, otherwise the signal will not be
focused well at the receiving antenna.

Microwave
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
 It is a cheaper source of communication as it avoids using cables and maintaining repeaters.
 Communication through microwave is much easier over difficult terrain.
 Microwave system permits data transmission rate of about 16 gigabits per second.
Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
 It is an insecure mode of communication.
 Signals can be split and propagated in different directions in air and received by the
receiver antenna with a reduced strength.
 Microwave propagation is affected by weather conditions such as rain, thunderstorm, etc.
 The cost of implementing towers, antennas is relatively high.

Radio Waves

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Radio waves use radio frequencies which are allocated to private businesses for direct voice
communication. A radio set-up uses transmitter and receiver. A transmitter sends radio waves and
encodes them into sine waves which, when received by a receiver, are decoded and the message is
received. Both the transmitter and receiver use antennas to radiate and fetch radio signals. They
are not line-of-sight transmission and, hence, can penetrate buildings easily.

Radio Waves
Advantages of Radio Waves
 They can be used indoors or outdoors.
 They are omnidirectional and can travel in any direction.
 Transmitter and receiver antenna do not need to be physically aligned.
 Radio wave transmission offers mobility.
 It is cheaper than laying cables and fibres.
 It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages of Radio Waves
 Radio wave communication is an insecure mode of communication.
 Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunderstorm, etc.

Satellite Link
Satellite transmission is also a kind of line-of-sight transmission that is used to transmit signals
throughout the world. When the frequency is greater than 3 GHz, the transmission is known as
microwave. Satellite is a special type of microwave transmission medium.
It provides various types of services such as transmitting fax, voice data, video, email and other
internet applications. In satellite communication, an earth station has a satellite dish, which
functions as an antenna to transmit and receive data from satellites.
When data is transmitted from an earth station to a satellite, it is known as uplink and when
transmission takes place from a satellite to an earth station, it is known as downlink. In satellite,
there are transponders that send and receive signals from/to the earth station.

Advantages of Satellite Link

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  The area covered is quite large.
 No line-of-sight restrictions such as natural mountains, tall buildings, towers, etc.
 Earth station which receives the signals can be at a fixed position or can be relatively
mobile.
Disadvantages of Satellite Link
 It is very expensive as compared to other transmission mediums.
 Installation is extremely complex.
 Signals sent to the stations can be interrupted by external interference.
 Low antenna gains result in overcrowding of available bandwidth.

Infrared
The type of transmission that uses infrared light to send data is known as infrared transmission.
The data is transmitted through air and can propagate in the open space; however, it cannot
penetrate the walls of the room. It is an example of short range wireless network. Infrared speed
varies from 2.4 kbps to 16 mbps. A very good example of infrared transmission is a handheld
remote control such as remote control of a TV or AC, etc.

Advantages of Infrared Transmission

 It is a secure medium of transmitting data.
 It is a cheap mode of transmission.
Disadvantages of Infrared Transmission
 It can work only for short distances.
 It cannot penetrate walls and is affected by distance, noise and heat.

Wireless Technology
Wireless technology is the process of sending information through invisible waves in the air.
Information such as data, voice and video are carried through the radio frequency of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, wireless communication is the transfer of information between
two or more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. The various wireless
technologies available are described as follows:

 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): Wi-Fi is wireless fidelity where communication takes place
without wires. The users share the data with each other by connecting to the broadband
internet service without using cables. As it is not a secured media of transmitting data, the
user must use privacy methods such as using passwords and make the connection security
enabled so that it does not become susceptible to hackers. For transmission of data through
Wi-Fi, a user must have a broadband connection, a wireless router and a laptop or desktop.

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  Wi-Max (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): Wi-Max is a wireless
communication system that provides broadband internet accessibility up to 30 miles. The
data transmission takes place without wires. It provides data rates up to 30 to 40 megabit-
per-second and up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. Wi-Max is based on standard IEEE 802.16
technology that provides users with access to high-speed voice, data and internet
connectivity. Wi-Max uses broadband internet connection and requires a tower known as
base station to communicate with the user. Instead of wires, it uses a microwave link to
establish a connection. Internet connectivity to end-user is provided by a microwave link
between the tower and the end-user.

Other Unguided/Wireless Media

 Laser Technology: Laser refers to a transmission medium that requires direct line of sight.
It provides point-to-point transmission between points located at short distances, such as
buildings. Similar to microwave, a laser is unidirectional but much faster. Lasers require
transmitters and photosensitive receivers for transmission. A disadvantage associated with
laser transmission is that it is badly affected by weather conditions.
 Bluetooth Technology: Bluetooth refers to a telecommunication industry specification
that defines how different devices can be connected virtually and transfer information
among each other. Bluetooth technology is commonly used in various portable devices
such as laptops and PDAs to establish a wireless connection in the form of Wireless LAN
(WLAN).
Transmission of information using Blue- tooth requires a low-cost transceiver chip in each
of the devices that need to be connected. Data is transferred at the frequency of 2.45 GHz,
which is available globally. The rate of data transfer in this type of transmission is 1 mbps.
Each device has a 48-bit address as per the IEEE 802 standard. The connection between
the devices can be either point-to-point or multipoint. Bluetooth is equipped with various
features such as encryption and verification to provide security.

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Network Protocol: A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed. Protocol means a set of rules that governs a network. A protocol is
a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more machines must follow to
exchange those messages over a network.

Protocol is a set of rules that governs the network.

Types of Protocols
Protocol specifies what is communicated and how. Let us take an example to explain this concept.
In India, different people speak different languages. Now, a person from Tamil Nadu and a person
from Punjab may not be able to communicate with each other because of the language difference.
However, they can exchange their ideas and communicate with each other using English as their
common language. Similarly, in case of computers, the hardware, software or even a combination
of the two might be required to implement and carry out the protocol. Thus, the protocol will help
in setting up a channel of communication or a connection between two computers; in other words,
a hardware connection between two computers. There are multiple protocols defined for computer
networks, which are as follows:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 IP (Internet Protocol)
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
 TELNET (Remote Login)

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. The IP protocol deals only with packets but
TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP works with
the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets of data to each other. The
packets are delivered not in a sequential order; instead, they are delivered randomly. Now, TCP at
the receiver side collects all packets and arranges them in a sequential order. TCP is a reliable
stream delivery service that guarantees that all bytes received will be identical with bytes sent and
in the correct order. Since packets are transferred over many networks and, thus, not reliable, a
technique known as positive acknowledgement with retransmission is used to guarantee reliability
of packet transfers.

IP (Internet Protocol)
IP is the primary protocol present in the internet layer of the internet protocol suite. It is responsible
for delivering packets from the source host to the destination host based on the IP addresses
mentioned in the packet headers. IP forwards each packet based on a four byte destination address
(the IP number). The packets are moved randomly from source to destination, which are then
assembled in a sequential order at the destination computer. IP stores destination addresses in the
form of IP addresses so that the packets will move to the destined address only by following the
shortest route.

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FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP is the simplest and most secure way to exchange files over the internet. The main objectives
of FTP are:
• Transmitting and sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
• Indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
• To shield a user from variations in file storage systems agmong different hosts.
• To transfer data reliably and efficiently.
• FTP uses the internet’s TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer.
FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the internet or to upload a file
to a server (e.g., uploading a web page file to a server).
While sharing files from one system to another, we may encounter several problems— two systems
may have different directory structures, two systems may have different filenaming conventions,
or two systems may have different ways to represent text and data. All these problems are solved
by FTP.

File transfer protocol is used to transfer files from server system to requesting node,
primarily for information sharing.

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

PPP is the most commonly used data link protocol. It is a protocol used to establish a direct
connection between two nodes. It can provide connection authentication, transmission encryption
and compression. It is used to connect the Home PC to the server of ISP. The communication takes
place through high speed modem. PPP is used to connect telephone dial-up lines to the internet.
Internet service provider may provide you with a PPP connection so that when you send any
request, the provider’s server can respond to your requests, forward it to the internet server, and
then forward responses back to you. For communicating through PPP, the user needs to install PPP
drivers assigned by the internet to the computer.

The following steps are required to connect to the internet:

• Double click on the dial-up icon.
• Dial the number provided to you by the ISP.
• Enter the login and password.
• Open a browser like Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator.
The various features of PPP are:
• Establishing the link between two devices.
• Maintaining this established link.
• Configuring this link.
• Terminating this link after the transfer.
• PPP provides error detection.
• PPP supports multiple protocols.
• It also defines how two devices can authenticate each other.

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SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
As the name suggests, SMTP is used for sending email messages to other networks or computers.
It handles only outgoing messages and not incoming messages. SMTP does not create messages:
rather, it helps in forwarding messages between client servers. It uses TCP to send messages to
another host. For receiving messages, another protocol POP (post office protocol) is used. Thus,
email clients require addresses of both SMTP server and another server that processes incoming
messages (usually POP or IMAP). SMTP uses TCP port number 25 for standard communication.

IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol) is used for accessing and storing email from a mail server
over a TCP/IP connection.

Most servers these days actually use a slightly updated version of the SMTP protocol called
ESMTP (Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). This was created to allow transmission of
multimedia through email. When someone sends a picture or music file through their email
program, ESMTP communication codes are used to identify the kind of data being transferred.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is a supplementary protocol that allows non ASCII
data to be sent through SMTP. Please note that MIME is not a protocol and cannot replace SMTP.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)

The POP (Post Office Protocol 3) is a simple and standard method to access mailbox and download
messages to the local computers. The user can receive messages with the help of POP protocol.
The advantage is that once the messages are downloaded, an internet connection is no longer
needed to read the mail. A user can read all emails offline as these are saved on the computer’s
hard disk.
Just like with the SMTP protocol, the POP protocol (POP2 and POP3) sends text commands to the
POP server. There are two main versions of this protocol—POP2 and POP3—to which ports 109
and 110 respectively are allocated and which operate using radically different text commands. To
get a mail from POP server, a user must enter a valid username and password for their email
account. The POP3 protocol thus manages authentication using the user name and password;
however, it is not secure because the passwords, like the email, circulate in plain text over the
network. POP3 protocol blocks inbox during its access which means that simultaneous access to
the same inbox by two users is impossible.

Serial Line Internet Protocol

The Serial Line Interface Protocol (also Serial Line Interface Protocol; SLIP) is an encapsulation
of the Internet Protocol designed to work over serial ports and modem connections. On personal
computers, SLIP has been largely replaced by the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), which is better
engineered, has more features and does not require its IP address configuration to be set before it
is established.

TELNET (Remote Login)

Telnet is a remote login that helps a user to log on to another user’s terminal without being its
original user. A user who is logging in to their own system can also get access to log on to another
user system and perform various functions such as accessing files or sharing files to/from the
remote system. With TELNET, a user logs in as a regular user with whatever privileges they may
have been granted to the specific application and data on that computer.

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HTTP (Hyper Test Transfer Protocol)
HTTP is used to transfer all files and other data (collectively called resources) from one computer
to another on the World Wide Web. This protocol is used to transfer hypertext documents over the
internet. HTTP defines how the data is formatted and transmitted over the network. When an HTTP
client (a browser) sends a request to an HTTP server (web server), the server sends responses back
to the client. This transfer of requests and responses is done following HTTP protocol.

The main features of an HTTP protocol are :

• It is a stateless protocol; this means that http server need not keep track of any command
and each command is independent of any other command.
• It is an object-oriented protocol that uses client server model

• The browser (client) sends request to the server, the server processes it and sends responses
to the client.
• It is used for displaying web pages on the screen.

HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure) HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Secure. It is a protocol for securing communication between two systems, eg, the browser and the
web server HTTP transfers data between the browser and the web server in the hypertext format.
whereas https transfers data in the encrypted format. Thus, https prevents hackers from reading
and modifying data during the transfer between the browser and the web server. Even if hackers
manage to intercept a communication, they will not be able to use it because the message is
encrypted.

PROTOCOLS FOR CHAT, AUDIO AND VIDEO CONFERENCING

IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

IRC is an application layer protocol that allows users to share text messages. It uses client server
model where the clients install IRC client program on their system so that they can communicate
with IRC chat server to transfer messages to other clients. In fact, the IRC client sends request to
IRC client server and the server forwards this request to another client to enable them to
communicate with each other. It provides one-to-one communication as well as group
communication for chatting and file sharing, such as Talk City. IRC networks such as the Undernet
provide servers and help us download an IRC client on our PC.
The IRC protocol was developed over four years since it was first implemented as a means for
users on a BBS to chat amongst themselves.

IRC is used for chatting by sending and receiving text messages. The sender sends request
to IRC server, which then forwards this request to another client to communicate with each
other.

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VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)- Protocol For Audio
VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. For transferring of voice, voice over internet protocol
is used. The voice calls are first digitized, compressed and then fragmented into small packets,
which are then relayed by Internet Protocol (IP) cross network. Voice-over-IP (VoIP)
implementation enables users to carry voice traffic (For example, telephone calls and faxes) over
an IP network. So, VoIP can be achieved on any data network that uses IP, like the internet,
intranets and Local Area Networks (LAN). As the data is transmitted in the form of packets, VoIP
uses packet switching technology where each packet follows best route to reach its destination.
VoIP allows both voice and data communications to be run over a single network, which can
significantly reduce infrastructure costs.
There are 3 main causes for the evolution of the voice-over IP market:
• Low-cost phone calls
• Add-on services and unified messaging
• Merging of data/voice infrastructures

VoIP is a protocol that is used for transmitting voice data and multimedia data over internet
protocol. It uses high speed broadband internet connection.

Protocols for Video Conferencing

Video conferencing is a communications technology that integrates video and audio to connect
users anywhere in the world as if they were in the same room. This term usually refers to
communication between three or more users who are in at least two locations, rather than one- on-
one communication and it often includes multiple people at each location. Each user or group of
users who is participating in a video conference typically must have a computer, a camera, a
microphone, a video screen, a sound system and internet connectivity.

Basically, this is a system that allows us to conduct meetings or trainings in different places
simultaneously. So, this technology is especially popular in the field of business because it allows
meetings or conferences to be held without the need for all the participants to travel to a single
location, saving time and money.

The most popular software used for video conferencing are: Google Meet, Ekiga , Zoom etc.

Protocol for video conferencing are:

• H.323
• SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)

H.323
H.323 is a protocol that provides communication for multimedia services such as audio video and
data communication over packet-based network. It specifies the standards and protocols for all
these services. As H.323 provides various communication facilities, it can be applied in a wide
variety of areas-consumer, business and entertainment applications.

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SIP
The expanded form of SIP is Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a communication protocol (more
specifically, a signaling protocol) originally developed in 1996. It uses IP protocol that establishes,
modifies and terminates VoIP telephone calls. It provides video conferencing service to the users,
so that a user can communicate with more than one person at a time.

IP phones - IP phones appear much like an ordinary telephone or cordless phone. They are
directly connected to the router or the LAN. They have all the hardware and software necessary
right onboard to handle the IP call. IP Phones are sometimes calledVoIP telephones, SIP phones
or Soft phones.
WEB SERVICES
WWW (World Wide Web)
WWW is an information service that can be used for sending and receiving information over the
internet through interlinked hypertext documents. Web pages may contain text, images, videos and
other multimedia components as well as web navigation features consisting of hyperlinks. The
documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) that
provides links to other documents as well as graphics, audio and video files. The World Wide Web
is based upon client-server architecture where a client sends a request and the server processes that
request and sends responses. A WWW client is called a web browser and a WWW server is called
a web server.

WWW is a set of programs and protocols that allows the user to create and display
multimedia web pages and is linked to the internet.
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)
HTML is a language that is used to create web pages which are then displayed by web browsers.
This language tells the browser how to display text, pictures and links on the screen. HTML is a
language that supports multimedia documents and consists of audio, video, graphics, pictures, etc.
It also helps in creating hyperlinks so that various documents can be linked together. When a
person clicks on a specified link, the document related to that link displays. HTML is a document
layout and hyperlink specification language, i.e., a language that uses various coded elements
known as tags for formatting the document and to specify the hyperlinks. HTML document can be
written using any text editor such as NOTEPAD or NOTEPAD2 and save a file with extension
either .HTM or .HTML.
HTML is a Markup language that enables users to create web pages and format them using
predefined tags. Tags are called coded elements.

DHTML- It stands for Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language. DHTML refers to Web content
that changes each time it is viewed. For example, the same URL could result in a different page
depending on any number of parameters, such as:
 geographic location
 time of the day
 previous pages viewed by the user
 profile of the reader

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Extensible Markup Language (XML)
Extensible Markup Language is a text-based Markup Language that allows the user to create their
own tags to store data in a structured format. However, these structured formats can be represented
in different ways. In XML, the tags are not predefined; rather, they are created by the user for their
own purpose. Unlike HTML, in XML, tags are case-sensitive and each tag must have a
corresponding closing tag. It is a general-purpose specification that allows users to create custom
Markup language. XML was designed to carry data and not to display data. For formatting data, a
separate style sheet known as cascading style sheet is used. XML is recommended by the World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C). It is a free open standard.

XML is a Markup Language for creating documents in a structured format. Users can create
their own tags along with predefined tags already defined by HTML.

Domain Names
To communicate over the internet, we can use IP addresses. But it is not possible to remember the
IP address of a particular website or computer every time. Domain names make it easier to resolve
IP addresses into names, for example, cbse.nic.in, google.com, meritnation.com, etc. It is the
system which assigns names to some computers (web servers) and maintains a database of these
names and corresponding IP addresses. Domain names are used in URLs to identify particular web
servers, for example, in the URL https://www.cbse.nic.in/welcome.htm, the domain name is
cbse.nic.in.
A domain name consists of the following parts.
1. Top-level domain name or primary domain name, and
2. Sub-domain name(s).
For example, in the domain name cbse.nic.in:
in is the primary domain name
nic is the sub-domain of in
cbse is the sub-domain of nic.
The top-level domains are categorized into following domain names:
Generic Domain Names
·com - commercial business
·edu - Educational institutions
·gov - Government agencies
·mil - Military
·net - Network organizations
·org - Organizations (non-profit)
Country Specific Domain Names
.in - India
·au - Australia
·ca- Canada
.ch- China
.nz- New Zealand
.pk- Pakistan
.jp- Japan
.us - United States of America

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URL
URL stands for uniform resource locator that helps in locating a particular website or a web page,
for example, http://www.cbse.nic.in/academics.html is a URL for a specific website. In this URL,
‘http’ stands for hypertext transfer protocol, and ‘www.cbse.nic.in’ indicates the IP address or the
domain name where the source is located. ‘academics.html’ specifies the name of the specified
html document on the website of CBSE.
URL stands for uniform resource locator that stores the address of a web page.

IP Address
The computers connected to a network also need to follow some rules to communicate with each
other. These sets of rules are known as protocols. Several types of protocols are used for
communication over networks. However, the most common one is the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP. A network using TCP/IP is known as a TCP/IP network.
The internet is an example of the TCP/IP network. Therefore, it becomes important that each
device should have a unique address to identify it on a TCP/IP network. This unique address is
known as IP address. IP address is short for Internet Protocol (IP) address. An IP address is an
identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. Networks using the TCP/IP protocol
route messages based on the IP address of the destination. The format of IP address is a 32-bit
numeric address written as four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be 0 to 255. Some
examples of IP addresses are: 192.168.1.2, 10.324.1.3 and 109.134.2.2.
As seen in the above examples, the numbers in an IP address are in the decimal form. When an IP
address is processed, the computer converts these numbers into binary form internally. The
following is an example of IP address in the decimal form: 192.168.1.10
The preceding IP address in its binary form is: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00001010
The IP address of a computer is assigned by the Internet Service Provider (ISP) whose internet
connection is used on that computer.
We can find out the IP address of your computer by performing the following steps:
1. Click the Start button. A pop-up menu containing various options appears.
2. Open the Run dialog box. Type cmd in the Run dialog box and press Enter. The command
prompt (cmd) window opens.
3. Type ipconfig and press Enter. The output appears, displaying the IP address of your computer
Website
A website is a collection of various web pages, images, videos, audios or other kinds of digital
assets that are hosted on one or several web servers. The first page of a website is known as home
page where all the links related to other documents are displayed. The web pages of a website are
written using HTML and the information is transferred over the internet through HTTP protocol.
The HTML documents consist of several hyperlinks that are accessed through HTTP protocol.
Examples of various websites are: cbse.nic.in, google.com, amazon.in, etc.

A website is a collection of several web pages which are related to each other through
hyperlinks.

Web Page
A web page is an electronic document/page designed using HTML. It displays information in
textual or graphical form. Traversal from one web page to another web page is possible through
hyperlinks.

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A web page can be classified into two types:
• Static web page: A web page which displays same kind of information whenever a user
visits it is known as a static web page. A static web page generally has .htm or .html as
extension.
• Dynamic web page: An interactive web page is a dynamic web page. A dynamic web page
uses scripting languages to display changing content on the web page. Such a page
generally has .php, .asp, or .jsp as extension.

Web Browser
It is a software that helps in accessing web pages and, thus, is also called web client. It helps the
user to navigate through the World Wide Web and display web pages. Some popular web browsers
are: Mozilla Firefox, Opera, AOL, Webkit, Iceweasel, etc.

A web browser is a WWW client that navigates through the WWW and displays web pages.

Web Server
A web server is a server that stores web pages and when a web client is sending any request to a
server, a server responds to the request and displays the requested web pages. A web server is a
program that runs on a computer connected to the internet. Web server waits for a request, finds
the documents and generates information, if required, and sends back to the browser that requested
for it. A single web server may support multiple websites, or a single website may be hosted on
several linked or mirrored web servers.

Some popular web servers are: Apache web server, Netscape enterprise web server, Microsoft
internet information server, etc.
A web server stores web documents and responds to the requests made by web browsers.

Web Hosting
Web hosting is a service which is provided by companies to its clients to allow them to construct
their own websites which are accessible to the internet users via World Wide Web. Such companies
are known as web host. These companies provide space on a web server they own for use by their
clients as well as provide internet connectivity. The websites which are constructed display
information for their organization in the form of web pages. The host may also provide an interface
or control panel for managing the web server so as to add news and events related to their
organization or for uploading some information which may be valuable for the internet users. A
client can also use control panel for installing scripts as well as other modules and service
applications like email. webhostingsitesindia.co.in is one of the top domain name registration and
web hosting companies in India. It is the only hosting company which provides support in regional
languages.
Web hosting is a service that is provided by the company to users to create web-based
applications.

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Domain Name Resolution (DNR)
To access a particular website, you use its URL because it is much easier to remember than the IP
address. When we use the URL to access a website, our computer needs to find its matching IP
address. It find the address by using the Domain Name Resolution (DNR). DNR is the name given
to the process by which your computer finds the IP addresses of domain names.

DNS Server
Instead of remembering IP addresses, we assign a domain name to each IP. But, to access a web
resource, a browser needs to find out the IP address corresponding to the domain name entered.
Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its corresponding IP address is called domain
name resolution. It is done through a server called DNS server. Thus, when we enter a URL on a
web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches a computer server called DNS server to obtain the IP
address corresponding to that domain name. After getting the IP address, the HTTP protocol
retrieves the information and loads it in our browser.

An example is shown in which the HTTP requests a DNS server for corresponding IP address, and
the server sends back an IP address.

Request of IP address corresponding to domain name

A DNS server maintains a database of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. To
understand how the domain name resolution works, we have to understand how and where the
DNS servers are kept. The DNS servers are placed in hierarchical order. At the top level, there are
13 servers called root servers. Then below the root servers there are other DNS servers at different
levels. A DNS server may contain the IP address corresponding to a domain or it will contain the
IP address of other DNS servers, where this domain entry can be searched.

Web Scripting
Website Scripting is used for creating web pages to publish them on the web interactively. The
communication between web browser and web server happens through small programs called web
scripts. Script is a programming language which, when executed, displays the web page. The
written codes for a script may be used by the server side or may be used by the client side as per
the requirement. The tasks which are executed by a web server are interpreted and automated
through the web scripts written in Web Scripting Language.

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  Client-Side Web Scripting Languages
Client-side scripting enables the user to interact with web pages. The client-side scripts are
downloaded at the client end and then interpreted and executed by the web browser. The client-
side scripting is browser dependent and, therefore, the browser must be scriptingenabled that
can interpret the script code. Examples of client-side scripting where it is used are online
games, downloading data from the server, etc.

Some Popular Client-Side Scripting Languages are:

 JavaScript
 VBScript
 PHP
 Server-Side Script
Server-side scripting gets executed on the server before displaying the information requested.
Some Popular Server -Side Scripting Languages are:
 ASP (Active Server Pages)
 JSP (Java Server Pages)

Difference between Client-Side Scripting and Server-Side Scripting

WEB 2.0
Web 2.0 is often known as World Wide Web for second generation where people collaborate with
each other through social networking sites, blogs, wikis, folksonomies, video-sharing sites, hosted
services, web applications and mashups.

SETTING UP A COMPUTER NETWORK—AN EXAMPLE

The network functioning is based on Client-Server architecture which requires effective and
efficient network design. It defines how clients are connected to server machine(s) on a network.
The most important rule or methodology for network (LAN) design is the 80:20 rule.

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The 80:20 Thumb Rule
This thumb rule states that in a well-organized and designed network, 80 percent of the traffic on
a given network segment is local (i.e., destined for a destination system in the same workgroup),
and not more than 20 per cent of the network traffic should move across a backbone. The backbone
in a network which violates this 80:20 rule leads to network congestion and traffic jams.

Tips to solve technical questions based on Networking

 Where Server should be placed: Server should be placed in the building where the
number of computers is maximum.
 Suggest a suitable cable layout of connection: A suitable cable layout can be suggested
in the following two ways:
1. On the basis of Server: First, the location of the Server is found out. Server should be placed
in that building where the number of computers is maximum (according to the 80:20 rule).
After finding the server position, each building distance is compared with the Server
building directly or indirectly (taking other building(s) in between). The shortest distance
is counted, whether it is directly or indirectly calculated.
2. On the basis of distance from each building: The distance between each building is
compared to all other buildings, either directly or indirectly. The shortest distance is
calculated, whether it is direct or through some other building.

 Where the following devices should be placed:

Server : Large number of computers in the building

HUB/Switch : Each building

Modem : In the server room

Repeater : It is used if the distances are higher than 70m.

It regenerates data and voice signals.

Router : When one LAN is required to be connected to the other LAN

Best Layout : Star (from Server), BUS topology

Best Cable : Twisted Pair, Ethernet Cable, coaxial cable (when distance is in metres);
For large distances—Fibre optics cable.

Best connecting technique: In hilly regions, radio waves should be used and city-to-city, state-to-
state satellite should be used.

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WIRELESS/MOBILE COMMUNICATION

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication. It provides its subscribers with
roaming facility so that they can use their mobile phones all over the world to communicate with
each other. GSM provides digital signalling as well as digital call facility and is so considered as
a second generation (2G) mobile phone system. It provides consumers with better voice quality
and lowcost alternatives to making calls such as short message service (SMS). It has an ability to
carry 64 kbps to 120 mbps of data rates. The key feature of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM), generally known as SIM card. It is a detachable smart card that contains the subscriber’s
information along the phone book. This allows the user to use the phone book and other
information even after changing the handset.

GSM is a wireless communication medium that provides the user with roaming facility, good
voice quality, SMS, etc., through digital signals.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. CDMA is an example of multiple access, where
several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. It
is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. It allows the
division of transmission medium into different channels so that transmission from different
stations is separated from each other. It employs spread spectrum digital technology where the
data is fragmented into small chunks over a number of different frequencies available for use.
Analog to digital conversion takes place where audio input is first digitized into binary elements.
The CDMA system works directly on 64 kbit/sec digital signals.
CDMA is a digital cellular technology that uses spread spectrum technique where the entire
bandwidth is divided among several users for transmission of data.

FDMA
It stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access. In this, each user utilizes a portion of the
frequency bandwidth available. Each user has its own frequency domain.

TDMA
It stands for Time Division Multiple Access. In this, each user is allowed to transmit only within
specified time intervals. Different users transmit in different time slots. When users transmit, they
occupy the whole frequency bandwidth.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)

GPRS or General Packet Radio Services provides various features over 2G phones with respect to
high speed data transfer. A user can send and receive data at the same time and thus uses the same
bandwidth for both purposes. Using GPRS technology, a user can make a call and at the same time
receive a message without disconnecting the call. However, GPRS usage is charged for the amount
of data sent or received. GPRS can provide data rates up to 32kbps to 48kbps. With this data rate,
email messages, video streaming, audio files, etc., can be downloaded and, therefore, can be called

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2.5G technology as it lies between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony.
Services Provided By GPRS
• Sending and receiving text messages.
• Internet access.
• Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).
• Internet applications for smart devices through Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
• Networking facility with one person or with several persons in a group, i.e.,
videoconferencing.

GPRS provides high speed data transfer. A user is allowed to download video streaming,
audio files, email messages, etc.

Wireless in Local Loop (WLL)

WLL provides the subscribers with wireless phone facility to communicate with each other in
order to get better voice quality. It employs the use of electromagnetic radiation to connect
subscribers to the local exchange without the use of wires. The user can use wireless phone,
speaker phone and parallel phones for communication with each other. In traditional telephone
networks, phone would be connected to the nearest exchange through a pair of copper wires. But
in Wireless Local Loop (wireless in local loop) technology, the subscriber is connected to the
nearest exchange through a radio link instead of copper wires. Wireless in local loop is cheaper
and quicker than copper wire connectivity. As the cost of copper along with the cost of digging
increases over time, this method proves cheaper than using copper wires. It is used in remote areas
where digging for copper wires is not possible.
There are various technologies like Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) used for wireless in local
loop. In crowded urban localities where permission to dig may be almost impossible to get,
wireless technology is advised.

Wireless in local loop is a system that is similar to telephone system which provides wireless
telecommunication by deploying a multiplicity of multichannel transceivers.

MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES—1G, 2G, 3G & 4G

1G Technology
1G technology was used in the first mobile phones. 1G was introduced in the 1980’s. Transmission
of voice data took place through analog radio signals. 1G network was used for voice calls and not
for transmitting text messages. For example, NMT, C-Nets, AMPS, TACS.
Salient features of 1G technology:
• It provides data rates up to 2.4 kbps.
• It uses analog signals.
• Voice quality is not very good.
• It does not support transmission of text messages.
• It does not provide security.

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2G Technology
2G technology is the first digital cellular system that was launched in the early 1990’s that provides
high data transmission rate in digital format. 2G also introduced data services for mobiles, starting
with SMS. For example, D-AMPS, GSM/GPRS, CDMAOne.
Salient features of 2G technology:
• Good quality of sound.
• Higher data rates up to 64 kbps.
• Improved security mechanism.
• Transmission of data such as text messages in digital format.
• Support transfer of picture messages and MMS.
• It does not support transfer of complex data such as videos.
• It allows multiple users per radio channel with each user talking one at a time.
• Digital transmissions enable compressed voice and multiplexing multiple users per
channel.

3G Technology
3G technology was introduced in the year 2000 and provides much higher data rates with speed
from 144kbps to 2mbps. 3G technology has introduced more efficient ways of carrying data,
making it possible to have faster web services, live chat, fast downloading, videoconferencing,
etc., over mobile phones.
For example, CDMA2000/EV-DO,WCDMA/HSPA+,TD-SCDMA.

Salient features of 3G technology:

• It has introduced more efficient ways of carrying data with faster web services.
• Live chat, fast downloading, videoconferencing, etc., are also possible over mobile phones.
• It allows the user to play 3D games.
• A user can see live streaming on smartphones.
• It provides broadband internet services.
• It allows the user to send and receive large email messages.
• High bandwidth is required.
• Splits channel into time intervals enabling a single user to get all the resources at once.

EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution) is a radio based high speed mobile data
standard.

4G Technology
Unlike previous generations of mobile technology, 4G mobile technology uses ultra-high
broadband internet services with much faster data speed, typically between 100 mbps– 1gbps.
Now, 4G rules the mobile market. Unlike previous generations of mobile technology, 4G mobile
technology is used for internet access on computers also, and it is totally wireless. 4G provides
internet access, high quality streaming video and “anytime, anywhere” voice and data transmission
at a much faster speed than 3G. The “anytime, anywhere” feature of 4G is also referred to as
“MAGIC” (Mobile multimedia; Anytime/anywhere; Global mobility support; Integrated wireless
solution; Customized personal services).

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Salient features of 4G technology:
• It is used for internet access on computers also and is totally wireless.
• 4G provides internet access, high quality streaming video and “anytime, anywhere” voice
and data transmission at a much faster speed than 3G.
• It delivers faster and better mobile broadband experiences.
• It provides more data capacity for richer content and more connections. The “anytime,
anywhere” feature of 4G is also referred to as “MAGIC” (Mobile multimedia)
anytime/anywhere.
5G Mobile System
It is a milestone development for the success of IoT and Machine to Machine (M2M)
communications. Machine to machine (M2M) is direct communication between devices — wired
and wireless. 5G allows data transfer in Gbps, which is much faster than 4G. It is able to support
all the devices of the future such as connected vehicles and the Internet of Things.

Cookies
When the user browses a website, the web server sends a text file to the web browser. This small
text file is a cookie. Generally a cookie contains the name of the website from which it has come
from and a unique ID tag.
Some cookies last only until the browser is closed. They are not stored on your hard drive. They
are usually used to track the pages that you visit so that information can be customised for you for
that visit. On the other hand, some cookies are stored on your hard drive until you delete them or
they reach their expiry date. These may, for example, be used to remember your preferences when
you use the website.

Hacking
The term hacking was first used at M.I.T during 1950s and 1960s. The term was used for people
who engaged themselves in harmless technical experiments and fun learning activities.
A computer enthusiast, who uses his computer programming skills to intentionally access a
computer without authorization is known as hacking. The computer enthusiast involved in this
activity is known as a hacker. A hacker accesses the computer without the intention of destroying
data or maliciously harming the computer.
Another term commonly used with hacking is cracking. Cracking can be defined as a method by
which a person who gains unauthorized access to a computer with the intention of causing damage.
Depending on the intent, there are different types of hackers.

 White Hats: Ethical Hacker

If a hacker uses its knowledge to find and help in fixing the security flaws in the system,
its termed as White Hat hacker. These are the hackers with good intentions. They are
actually security experts. Organisations hire ethical or white hat hackers to check and fix
their systems for potential security threats and loopholes. Technically, white hats work
against black hats.

 Black Hats: Crackers

If hackers use their knowledge unethically to break the law and disrupt security by exploiting
the flaws and loopholes in a system, then they are called black hat hackers.

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  Grey Hats
The distinction between different hackers is not always clear. There exists a grey area in
between, which represents the class of hackers that are neutral, they hack systems by exploiting
its vulnerabilities, but they don’t do so for monetary or political gains. The grey hats take
system security as a challenge and just hack systems for the fun of it.

Denial of Service
Denial of Service (DoS) is a scenario, wherein an attacker (Hacker) limits or stops an authorised
user to access a service, device, or any such resource by overloading that resource with illegitimate
requests. The DoS attack floods the victim resource with traffic, making the resource appear busy.
If attackers carry out a DoS attack on a website, they will flood it with a very large number of
network packets by using different IP addresses. This way, the web server would be overloaded
and will not be able to provide service to a legitimate user. The users will think that the website is
not working, causing damage to the victim’s organisation. Same way, DoS attacks can be done on
resources like email servers, network storage, disrupting connection between two machines or
disrupting the state of information (resetting of sessions).

Internet and Intranet

Internet:

 The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and networks that spans the
entire world.
 It is a public network, accessible to anyone with an internet connection.
 Information and resources on the internet are typically available to the general public, and
it is designed for widespread communication and information sharing.
 The internet is often used for activities like web browsing, email, online shopping, social
media, and accessing online services.
Intranet:
 An intranet is a private network that is restricted to a specific organization or group of
users, such as a company, government agency, or educational institution.
 It is designed for internal use and communication within the organization.
 Access to an intranet is typically controlled through security measures like firewalls, login
credentials, and encryption, making it more secure and private.
 Intranets are often used for purposes such as internal communication, document sharing,
collaboration, and hosting internal applications.

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CASE STUDY BASED QUESTION

Ayurveda Training Educational Institute is setting up its centre in Hyderabad with four specialised
departments for Orthopedics, Neurology and Pediatrics along with an administrative office in
separate buildings. The physical distances between these department buildings and the number of
computers to be installed in these departments and administrative office as given as follows. You
as a network expert have to answer the queries as raised by them in (i) to (iv).

Shortest distances between various locations in metres:

Administrative Office to Orthopedics Unit ------------------ 55
Neurology Unit to Administrative Office ------------------ 30
Orthopedics Unit to Neurology Unit ------------------- 70
Pediatrics Unit to Neurology Unit ------------------- 50
Pediatrics Unit to Administrative Office --------------------40
Pediatrics Unit to Orthopedics Unit --------------------110

Number of Computers installed at the various locations are as follows:

Pediatrics Unit 40
Administrative Office 140
Neurology 50
Orthopedics Unit 80

(i) Suggest the most suitable location to install the main server of this institution to get efficient
connectivity.
(ii) Suggest the best cable layout for effective network connectivity of the building having server
with all the other buildings.
(iii) Suggest the devices to be installed in each of these buildings for connecting computers
installed within the building out of the following:
● Gateway ● Modem ● Switch
(iv) Suggest the topology of the network and network cable for efficiently connecting each
computer installed in each of the buildings out of the following:
Topologies: Bus topology, Star Topology
Network Cable: Single Pair Telephone Cable, Coaxial Cable, Ethernet Cable

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ANSWER:
(i) Server should be placed at Administrative Office as it has the maximum number of computers.
(ii)

Administrative Office is connected to Orthopedic, Radiology, Pediatrics units directly in a Star

Topology
(iii) Switch
(iv)Topology: Star Topology
Network Cable: Ethernet Cable / Coaxial Cable

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTION

Sanskar University of Himachal Pradesh is setting up a secured network for its campus at Himachal
Pradesh for operating their day-to-day office & web based activities. They are planning to have
network connectivity between four buildings. Answer the question (i) to (iv) after going through
the building positions in the campus & other details which are given below:

The distances between various buildings of university are given as:-

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Number of computers:-

As a network expert, you are required to give best possible solutions for the given queries of the
university administration:-
(a) Suggest cable layout for the connections between the various buildings,
(b) Suggest the most suitable building to house the server of the network of the university,
(c) Suggest the placement of following devices with justification:
1. Switch/Hub
2. Repeater
(d) Suggest the technology out of the following for setting-up very fast Internet connectivity
among buildings of the university
1. Optical Fibre
2. Coaxial cable
3. Ethernet Cable

ANSWER:
(a) Star topology

(b) Server should be placed at Main Building as it has the maximum number of computers.
(c) Hub/Switch each would be needed in all the buildings to interconnect the group of cables from
the different computers in each building.
A repeater needs to be placed along the wire between main building & finance building as the
distance between them is more than 70 mtr.
(d) Optical Fibre

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