Lead Journal of Languages and Literature (LJLL), Vol. 1, No.

1 May, 2023

Ecofeminism in Selected Works of First Generation Nigerian Female Writers

Rebecca Ufoma DAVIES (Ph.D)

Department of Languages and Literature
Lead City University, Ibadan
+2348066541622
[email protected]

Olufunto Atinuke ADEBOWALE

Department of Languages and Literature
Lead City University, Ibadan
+2348059199060
[email protected].

Abstract
The growing interest in literary works has attracted diverse approaches in scholarship. The goal of
ecofeminism is the quest for equality for women and environmental justice. The central argument of
ecofeminism asserts the connection between the oppression and subordination of women and of nature.
The paper examines ecofeminism from the perspective of a culture-centered approach, where
ecofeminism view the ecosphere as a binary entity comprising men/women and nature/culture. Thus, the
study transcends gender and nature, to the human connections with environmental issues and culture;
where patriarchal structures are challenged and transformations are achieved. Varying forms of
oppression, subjugation, conflicts of motherhood, tradition and environment are explored. Selected
works of first-generation female writers deployed for the study include, Flora Nwapa's Efuru, Zaynab
Alkali's Invisible Borders and Zulu Sofola's Wedlock of the gods. These literary works are selected for their
thematic affinity with women and ecology and the literary works were written in consonance with
colonial discourse and imperialism. Significantly, this study reveals the need to rethink the environment in
African history, from new perspectives by conceptualizing woman/nature and culture/nature
connections, beginning from earlier works of Nigerian female writers. Qualitative research methods, via
a close reading and critical textual analysis, are adopted for the study. The paper concludes that
environmental challenges in Nigeria are situated on patriarchal structures and early Nigerian female
writers devised libratory strategies to address them in their discourses.

Keywords: Environment, Ecofeminism, Culture, Binary, Nigerian female writers.

Introduction
The growing interest in Ecofeminism in literary works has attracted diverse approaches to the
concept. This concept came about in 1974 by French feminist Francoise d' Eaubonne.
Ecofeminism is a social movement that emerged from both political activism, and intellectual
critique. It brings together feminism and environmentalism. From the conceptual definition of
Ecofeminism, it is an ideology and movement that sees gender equality and social injustice in a
larger sense as intrinsically related issues due to the influence of male dominance in the society,
Birkeland, (1993: 41).

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It helps to unveil the exploitation and destructions of our ecology and its natural resources by
developing countries under the disguise of globalization or development. Ecofeminism sees
parallelism in oppression of nature by human activity as same with masculine chauvinism in
practices and attitudes, which is common in patriarchal society. Hence, it examines the dualistic
relationship between nature and women to reveal their parallel and mutually reinforcing
oppressive relationship. Buell, (1995: 47).
It argues that the domination of women and the degradation of the environment are
consequences of patriarchal and capitalism, which is an example of how the societal values and
ethics are controlled, which is profit-driven, sexist and male-centered. It highlights how the
oppressive system work hand in hand to facilitate the exploitation of women and nature. The
relationship between women and environment cannot be over emphasized right from the onset
of oral African culture, there has been central argument between women and nature due to the
oppression, subordination and subjugation of women and the oppression of nature. Therefore,
the concept, Ecofeminism, exemplifies the structural imbalances of power in order to foster
equitable societies.
The issue of women and nature is widely discussed, not in Nigeria alone, but in various
geographical locations around the world. We have writers like Susan Griffin, Val Plumawood,
Carol J. Adams and Anne Karpf, and coming down to Africa, there are Ecofeminist writers like
Pulma Dineo Qqola, Tsitsi Dangarembga and Zaynab Alkali, Buchi Emecheta, Mariama Ba and
many more, which shows that the issue is not a nouveau, it has been since in the African
society. Patriarchy, is a known societal "disease", which plague African women. Patriarchy is like
a story already known and efforts were not put in place to challenge the societal status quo,
until of recent, when there arouse the female literary writers who sensitized the consciousness
of the women to stand up and assert their rights, which they had been denied all this while.
The patriarchal structure allowed male hegemony and this led to varying forms of
oppression, subjugation and conflicts of motherhood. The environmental challenges which are
situated in Nigerian patriarchal structure are the main issue that Nigerian female writers
addressed in the selected literary works for this study, which are; Efuru by Flora Nwapa, Invisible
Borders by Zaynab Alkali, Wedlock of the gods by Zulu Sofola. According to Carolyn Martin Shaw
in Muponde and Taruvinga (2002:26) state that:
'when women write, they not only create their own stories,
but by the act of writing they gain authority over their lives'
Ecofeminism also ensure there is feminine and nature liberation from male chauvinism
domination and violence and to create an eco-friendly and gender-just world order.

Theoretical Framework
Ecofeminism movement emerged in late 1980s in the United States of America. The field of
Ecocriticism has newly emerged as an important critical perspective that explains how human
beings relate to the environment and how non-humans are presented in fiction. According to
Cheryll Glotfelty (1996: xviii), a pioneer in this field, Ecocriticism as "the study of the
relationship between literature and the physical environment". Ecocriticism is a concept that
examines the interconnectedness of man and nature (Fenton 2008:2). Fenton says that man and
nature are inextricably connected.

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Ecocriticism was defined by Glotfelty and Fromm as an 'earth centred approach to

literary studies (1996: xviii). It places the ecosphere at the center of everything. It considers the
environment as part of a system in which humanity exist. It is an 'earth centred' approach that
looks at many possible connections between the physical environment and literature.
Kerridge and Sammells (1998), explore ecocriticism in terms of both its earth centredness' and
aid in response to the earth's despoliation because to them, due to toxic waste contamination,
extinction of species at an unprecedented rate, global warming and oil spills pose a great
danger to the ecosphere and through literary texts, reflects how human contribute to
environment restoration from a literary perspective.
Ecocriticism is an attempt to read literary and cultural texts from an environmentalist
view points to make some difference to the world outside. Buell, (1995:12), viewed nature or
the environment as an 'object' material and vulnerable reality and voiced its concern for a'spirit'
of commitment to environmentalist praxis.
Muzumdar (2013) opines that nature writings and ecological themes in all literature are
the major concern of ecocriticism. Likewise Srilatha (2011), Garrard (2004), also share same
view that nature holds an important place in the lives of people, therefore, there is a need to
understand the interconnectivity between humans and non-human nature and to raise
awareness against environmental problems that disrupt this relationship.
Also, Coupe (2000:705) defines ecocriticism as an approach to literature which considers
the relationship between humans and non-human life as representation in literary texts and
which theorises about the place of literature against environmental destruction. Here, he
questions the role of literature against environment destruction.
Ecofeminism is also a feminist theory that is strongly informed by ecology. First coined
by Francoise D'Eaubonne in 1974, Ecofeminism is concerned with the interconnection between
the domination and exploitation of women and the domination and exploitation by nature.
Ecofeminism is about close connectivity and inseparable bond between women and ecology.
When women are subjugated, oppressed and marginalized, nature suffers also. According to
King, an Ecofeminist scholar, 'Ecofeminism's challenge of social domination extends beyond sex
to social domination of all kinds, because the domination of sex, race, class and nature are
mutually reinforcing', (Warren, 1997:21).
Some Ecofeminist scholar like Warren 1997; Howell 1997, Ruether 1992, succinctly sees
nature as a feminist issue and Howell in her article "Ecofeminism refers to a feminine theory
and activism as informed by ecology",(1997:232). She explores the interconnectedness of
ecology and feminism, and explores how male domination of women and nature are
interconnected both in cultural ideology and in social structure (1992:2). Van Rune Shiva, is of
the view that the world view that causes environmental degradation and injustice is the same
world view that causes a culture of male domination, exploitation and inequality for women'
(cited in Brinker 2009:1). Also, (Cook 2008) says there is a link between the culture of male
domination and the degradation and exploitation of nature.
In order to add to the thoughts of ecofeminist scholars, King (1989) and Birkeland (1993,
cited in Howell, 1997) say that for the environment to survive, a social transformation of values
that embodies non dualistic and non-hierachial features are oppressive on nature. Birkeland
(1993) and King (1989) state that social transformation in Ecofeminism must include intellectual
transformation. It uses language to problemitise the unjustified domination of women, animals

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and nature. It is a new wave in the literary canon. Ecofeminism is a movement that sees
connection between the exploitation and degredation of the natural world, the subordination
and oppression of women. It started in the mid 1970s by the French Feminist, Francoise
d'Eauboune. It refers to embodiment of how women's bodies are particularly vulnerable to
environment pollution (Mellor 1992: Salleh 1997).
Going down African memory lane, it was the advent of the colonialist that further encouraged
and gave the patriarchal dominance a great footings in the African society.
According to Ogundipe-Leslie (1994:30), the colonial systems negatively encouraged the
traditional ideologies of male superiority which originally existed in African societies. This
Colonialism has brought out the basic sexist tendencies in pre-capitalist Africa. Colonialism
empowers African male by exercising authority on the female at home and in their communities
because they built their systems of African men's hegemony and marginalized female folk. Thus,
women are considered as subordinates because they thought their roles are to nurture children
and be involved in domestic chores (Schmidt, E, 1991).

Theoretical Framework: Ecocriticism and Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism pays attention to women's position in culture and society and it's goal is to change
and transform the oppressive situation of women and advocates for equity for women,
(Reddock 1998). It is a complex, multi-faceted movement whose essence is to rebuild and not to
destroy the society. Ecofeminism is out to restore pride, dignity and place of women in the
history.
An ecocritical reading of literature calls for a paradigm shift from the human-centric to
the bio-centric and ecofeministic method will be employed as the interpretive frame work that
can unravel both the discourse of the feminine and the politics of it's representation with
Nigeria history, (Wilson-Tagoe 1997:177).

Methodology
This will be based on close reading of the three selected literary works of the First generation of
Nigerian Female writers. Thereby, better insight is given to the relationship between the women
and environmental issues, in line with their interconnectedness with each other, using the
selected texts. Analytical tools like journals, internet, critical works and research papers will be
used for more qualitative information.

Discussion
There is no how the issues of women and the environment will be discussed, without culture.

Environmentalism is about the story of a loss but more expression

of anxieties about this loss is not enough, we need some sort of activity,
both physical and intellectual to repair it. To bridge the nature-culture,
man-environment gap/divide we need a new kind of thought, 'the global
reparative thinking, which is an interconnected interdisciplinary way of
thinking and feeling.Muzumdar (2013:3).

In addition, Glotfelty asks these questions:

How is nature represented in [literary work], what role does the

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physical setting play in the plot of this novel? Are the values expressed
in this [narrative] consistent with ecological wisdom? How can we
characterize nature writing as a genre? In what ways has literacy itself
affected human kind's relationship to the natural world? How has the
concept of wilderness changed over time?

In what ways and to what effect is the environmental crises seeping

into contemporary literature. (Glotfelty,1996:xix).

Efuru
Efuru, is a novel by Flora Nwapa, published in 1966. The story is based on an old folktale of Igbo
people about a woman chosen by the gods. Efuru Ogene is an Igbo woman, the daughter of
Nwashike Ogene, a hero and leader of his tribe, who lives in a small village in colonial West
Africa. Efuru means 'Daughter of Heaven: they are blessed'. Flora mirrors her as she navigates
through her adult life, marriage, motherhood and independence. She is a good wife,
submissive, caring and nice to her in-laws and the people of her community. She is an
independent -minded woman. She is rich and respected for the economic value she added to
her community. It is a foundational novel which expresses the emerging female voice in African
Literature. Her female character representation makes it possible to reconfigure women in
taking roles as articulate, industrious, self determined and articulate, as against the earlier
portrayal of women as second fiddle, inferior, servile, as depicted by male writers.
Viewing through the protagonist, Efuru, as a lens in her community, Flora Nwapa tries to
change the distorted image of African women by male writers, who always paint women as
second fiddle, people 'to be seen and not to be heard' and totally dependent on men.
Therefore, she reverses/changes the gender roles, both societally and maritally in her novel.

Women/Culture
Nwapa depicts a new social order, which supports and encourages women as having upper
hand in the society. She presents Men as the weaker sex. Her portrayal shows men as care free,
non challant and partially committed to their matrimonial home. This type of attributes is seen
in both of her husband's. For example, Adizua, her first husband, he wasn't the one that paid for
Efuru's bride price. It was she that paid for it by herself and also gave the money to buy things
for entertainment to her father, page 9, 12 and 23:
but your husband must fulfill the customs of our people. It is very important.
Our enemies will laugh at us. Tell your husband, he must see your Father when
we have enough money to pay the dowry, we shall approach elder men
who will help us beg him.
You're to give Efuru's father a bottle of schnapps now, Adizua's uncle said
Adizua went out, and was making for home, when Efuru called him and gave
some money instead.
She is the one that single handedly with the assistance of her mother in-law, bought the items
needed for her bride price, page 21
meanwhile, Efuru and her mother in-law went to the market and bought
the best kola they could find. Then they went to the shops and bought six

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bottles of schnapps. Then they went to a woman near by and bought a big
jar of home-made gin.
Adizua 's irresponsible life is further seen again when he eloped with another woman without
prior notice to Efuru, page 51 and 52:
You mean Adizua my husband, did not return last night.
I waited till about midnight and when I did not see him,
I went to bed,
'I want my food tonight' Adizua said, Efuru went to the

kitchen and prepared something for her husband. When

it was ready, Adizua was called, the room was empty.
During the demise of their daughter Ogonim, Efuru is the only one that takes care of the
mourners, with the assistance of her sister in-law, Ajanupu. The dead of their daughter didn't
bring any remorse for him. He decided to stay with the enstrange woman, page 70:
Ogonim's father must be sent for, the corpse will be buried, Ossai,
get up and be useful, go down to the stream and see if there are
people going to Ndoni and give them a message for Adizua.
Likewise Gilbert, Efuru's second husband, he too behaved same. When he impregnated another
woman, under the pretence of going to trade in Ndoni. Efuru got to know, page 196 and she
joyously, accepted the boy.
' How did they settle that problem of Gilbert' son who came
From Ndoni, She saw a clear resemblance between him
and her husband and treated them very kindly. Of course,
she was angry with Gilbert, not because he
kept the whole thing a secret from her until the week
the boy was actually coming to visit them.
When Efuru's father died, Gilbert (Eneberi), was absent. It was Efuru and the elders of her
family and her community people that gave Nwashike, a befitting burial. This presents him a
bad son in-law and this greatly saddens Efuru, page 204:
She was very sad. Gilbert was not at the burial of
Efuru's father. He was not at home when the old
man died. He was sent for, but he did not return..
Efuru was able to challenge the culture of her people by striving to live above the structured
female subjective life styles which many women in her community lived. She employed her
industrial lifestyle to influence her husband’s lifestyles, her in-laws and her community

Wedlock of the gods

In this three Acts play, Zulu Sofola presents the obnoxious cultural practice in contemporary
African society. Going by the title, it means 'the state of being a married couple voluntarily
joined for life or until divorce'. This is in contradiction to Ogwoma and Adigwu's marriage and it
led to Ogwoma wanting to break off from the oppression of tradition in a male patriarchal
society of the arranged marriage to Adigwu, a rich and older suitor. Sofola presents the title
with a symbolical meaning that Ogwoma and Uloko are destined by the gods to marry, but it is

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clear evidence that the tradition of the people, due to the poverty of average man, supercede
the will of the gods.

Culture/Women
In Wedlock of the gods, the obnoxious cultural practice in the contemporary African society is
depicted. It is a marriage tragedy between Adigwu and Ogwoma. Ogwoma was forced by her
parents to marry Adigwu, because they needed money (bride price), to take care of her brother
who was seriously sick. No respect was accorded to females, they were not treated with high
esteem, they are believed to be a means of satisfying their economic thirst or want. That is why
they take them as a means of solving the male folk or societal/ economic problem, especially,
with the bride price. This economic gain is what the male folks are after, without considering
the physical, psychological, social and mental truama that the female in question undergoes.
Ogwoma was forced to marry Adigwu, which was against her wish. She was whipped to
Adigwu's house, despite her refusal, page 9:

Anwasia: You were forced to marry Adigwu, we all know that, but this pregnancy
is not a good thing.
Ogowma: You don't understand how my heart beats.
Because you were not tied like a goat and
Whipped along the road to a man you hated,
You are not able to understand what my heart tells me.
Anwasia: Ogwoma, our people say that a man's daughter is a source of
wealth to him. Your parents needed the money for a very expensive
sacrifice for your brother, whom sickness almost killed.
You should have been happy that your money saved the life of your own
brother.

Her parents placed the economic value of the bride price above the joy and fulfillment of their
daughter. Ogowma said:

Ogowma: It is one who has never loved who thinks that way.
I prayed for the past three years for my God to deliver me from this
marriage. My prayers were answered, let the rain become fire; Ogowma
loves and Ogowma will do it again!
Ogwoma loathe Adigwu, their marriage was a mis- match. Adigwu
eventually died and the cause of his death wasn't disclosed, page 7
Odibei: I must find it.
Otubo: come, let us go. You are not well.
Odibei: My son cannot die a shameful death.
Otubo: Come and rest your head. You are worrying too much.
God gives and God takes away.
Odibei: She must not go free. I must find it. I must find the
cause of my son's death.

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Culture places custom and tradition above any female's decision maritally. Ogwoma
symbolically represents women who are compelled by the society to succumb to societal and
marital violence. She saw herself maritally as an unfulfilled woman. Her love is for Uloko and
not Adigwu...page 10
Anwasia: Uloko has really blinded you
Ogwoma: Oh God, Uloko has blinded me.
I go to the market,
It is Uloko I see in every stall;
I go to the farm,
It is Uloko in every tree;
The wind blows,
It is his hands that touch me;
The birds sing,
It is his voice I hear;
Oh God, his child moves in me

Efuru, although from her youthful eyes, was happy that the death of Adigwu had brought a
freedom from the coerced marriage that she was forced into. She represents the voice of the
maritally oppressed female in African society. She challenged the culture of her people and
dared the consequences, although too tragic.

Invisible Borders
This is a novel by Zaynab Alkali. The novel is otherwise known as ' Novel for girls'. It employs a
flashback narrative style. It is a Bildungsroman, which provides insight into culture and gender
to confirm the magnitude of women's oppression and dehumanization in a patriarchal society.
The Invisible Borders shows the villainy of the male child and how the female becomes a victim
of his recklessness show of power. It shows how women suffer in an insufferably patriarchal
society, which doesn't give them the right privilege to be who they wanted to be and how they
take their destiny into their hands.

Women/Culture
Zaynab mirrors Safia's life as it marches in its own convoluted trajectory from her childhood till
marriage. Safia and Sam are the protagonists, who were betrothed by Safia's father, Ma'aji at
the ages of 12 years and 16 years respectively...page 23:
Ma'aji looked at Sam the way a father looks at a son
and smiled wanly. Sam smiled full-lipped, revealing a
set of white regular teeth..... an inexplicable vibration
passed between them.... turning to the young man,
he said, 'Son, she is only twelve, you are not much
older yourself, but fate had brought you together
......in an unsteady voice he said to her, 'I shall take

From the excerpt above, it shows the patriarchal dominance. Before the duo were ripe for
marriage, they had been introduced to marriage institution. This is the overriding force that

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governed the two of them from that moment and the belief in their culture that since it is
Ma'aji that had joined them together, they are definely joined, not knowing that they are
not....page 29
...the love of her life, a husband not destined to be.
The two of them were in the medical school and they were doing greatly, when a bomb fell,
detonated and shattered his dreams. Sam was on his second year and 19 years old, while Safia
was 15 years old. Sam's undue alliance with Uncle Gaga, (his mentor), who represents an
external force that led him to the wayward life. This lifestyle led him to betrayed Safia twice,
firstly, when it was believed that he impregnated Samfa,....page 37 and 41
" that Sam in a drunken stupor, accidentally slept with a
woman they said is your mother's age mate.... Chima's voice finally
touched a remote region in Safia's brain, the denial region. "What?
the nursemaid for Dr Maclean's daughters?....the pain around
the region of her heart tightened until she could no longer breath.
It was then she let out a heart- rending cry that stunned everyone
and sent her mother dashing into the room.
Safia was trying to put her past behind her when agreed to marry the cousin of his friend,
Halima, Dr Sufyan, when Sam resurfaced and she finally left doctor Sufyan for Sam, only to
receive a visitor one day, claiming to be a legal wife of Sam, ten days to her marriage to
Sam....page 85

they stared at each other unseeingly. Safia was twenty- six.

Aissata was more than a decade older than her.......History had a way
of repeating itself " Sam was brought into my division, a division where
I headed......" but it was only three years ago we got into a serious relationship"
she paused. Safia looked at her steadily and slowly her eyes reverted and rested on the
boy....
"Sam's child and.....she pointed at her stomach.....she was about eight months gone....
In a daze, Safia had walked back to her room in the hostel....
nothing meant anything anymore. She had walked through similar fire kindled
by the same man after eleven years!
She felt like the greatest fool that ever lived.
Sam fled to Lagos and sought out his mentor, Uncle Gaga, since he had no one to turn to,,,
took him in and secured him a position on Nigerian Custom and Immigration. Sam learnt the
ropes rather too quickly . He became a ' nouveau riche,'. .....page 48:
He raised a mansion for his grandparents,
a two- bedroom flat for his ensranged wife
and a four- bedroom bungalow for Talatu and
her husband. For the Tills community, which
he felt he had disappointed, he donated money
for the renovation of their places of worship and
the community's primary and secondary schools.

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He was twenty--seven and felt satisfied that he

had achieved a lot materially....
They were also powerful politicians in Savannah State. Sam was a senator for years. While they
were going on a support for Gaga's gubernatorial campaign, they were killed by their political
rival. The two of them represent the politics and Politicians about how they carry on with their
brazen rape of the country's resources without any care for proper leadership that those offices
demand of. The populace were helpless to the chancery of these fraudsters.
Safia was able to fulfil her dream by completing her course of study, medicine, went for
the National Youth Service Corp, married a loving, dedicated, responsible and caring husband,
who is a Chief Medica Director and we're blessed with three children.

Conclusion
The close reading used in the analysis of the selected works allows the establishment of
oppression and psychological truama that the female folks and environment/society experience
in hegemonic patriarchal society and how they challenged the existing culture and influenced
their environment positively.

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