Unit - 1

1.1 Database Systems:

 Introducing the database and DBMS,
 Why the database is important,
 Historical Roots: Files and File Systems,
 Problems with File System Data Management,
 Database Systems.
1.2 Data Models:
 The importance of Data models,
 Data Model Basic Building Blocks,
 Business Rules,
 The evaluation of Data Models,
 Degree of Data Abstraction.
1.3 The Relational Database Model:
 A logical view of Data,
 Keys,
 Integrity Rules,
 Relational Set Operators,
 he Data Dictionary and the system catalog,
 Relationships within the Relational Database,
 Data Redundancy revisited, Indexes,
 Codd’s relational database rules.

1 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Chapter-1

Database Systems

System: a system is an integration of entities, alternatively designed as components, which

have integration among them.
For E.g., consider a particular department in a college (or) university. The entities of the
department are students, non-teaching staff, infrastructure etc. These entities interact with
another.
The information system can be either a conventional file processing system (or) database
management system.
Conventional File Processing System:
In the conventional File Processing System each and every sub system of the information
system will have own set of files. As a result there will be a duplication of data between
various sub system.
The concept of Conventional File Processing System is shown below.

Report 1 Report 2 Report 3 Report 4 Report 5 Report 6

Application-X Application-Y Application-Z

File 1 File 2 File 3 File 4 File 5 File 2 File 5

File 1

The above system consists of 3 sub-systems namely application-x, application-y and

application-z.
It is clearly that some of the files are duplicated in different subsystems of the conventional
file processing system. This will intern increase the data redundancy.

2 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Example of Conventional File Processing System:
Consider the example of a hospital system. The following diagram of the hospital is shown
below.

Registration Society

Patient File Out patient treatment

Out-Patients
file

In--Patients Accounts

In Patient Treatment file Invoice file

The patients come to the hospital from the society. Upon the arrival of a preliminary
registration is done by seeking information about the patient. Then depending on the type
and illness, the patient will either be treated as out-patient (or) in-patient. In some cases
initially a patient will be treated as out-patient and then the patient will be admitted as
outpatient if necessary. Finally the bills are to be paid before the patient is discharged. In this
system we are using four files. The files are
Patient File: At the Registration.

In-patient Treatment File: at the in-patient section.

Out-patient Treatment File: at the out-patient section.

In Voice File: at the accounts section.

The files are maintained in different sections of the hospital in a decentralized manner,
certain data items (patient no, patient name, patient address) will be duplicated. Which will
have some undesirable results? Some of the difficulties of the conventional file processing
system of the hospital are the following.

3 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 1. There may be a duplication of data in different sections of the hospital which would
lead to inconsistency of data.
2. A lot of paper work and telephone calls would be required to synchronize file
structure.
3. The system cannot provide answer to complex queries.
Drawbacks of Conventional File Processing System :
A list of drawbacks of the Conventional File Processing System is presented below.
1. Uncontrolled Redundancy of data.
2. Inconsistency of data.
3. Inflexibility.
4. Limited data sharing.
5. Poor enforcement of standards.
6. Excessive program maintenance.
7. Low programming productivity.
1. Uncontrolled Redundancy of data:
Each sub system of an organization maintains own set of files without data sharing, the
same data will be available in different files. This will result increased disc space, increased
time of data entry and inconsistency of data.
2. Inconsistency of data:
The uncontrolled redundancy of data will permit the system to have the same data in
different files. As a result, a particular data element like patient name will be entered
differently in different files. Which is nothing but inconsistency of that particular data
element . while performing the basic data operations like updation, deletion, retrieval etc.
This inconsistency will give misleading results.
3. Inflexibility:
In the conventional file processing system, generally top-down approach will be followed in
file system design. In this approach a set of meaningful entities of the proposed system will be
identified along with their attributes to create the files. The actual set of reports which is
required for the system will not be possible to meet the requirements of the users fully. Also
in future, if there is a some change in the user requirements, then the conventional file
processing system will not be flexible to provide the results.
4 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
4. Limited data sharing:
In the conventional file processing system the data is stored in a decentralized manner, there
is a remote probability of sharing of the data.
5. poor enforcement of standards:
since different applications are developed by different groups will designing fields each group
will follow its own standards of different field name, field width, field type etc.
This will create a serious difficulty while modifying programs and data structures of fields by
different groups of users which will lead to low programmer productivity.
6. Excessive program maintenance:
Since the different applications are developed differently by different groups in terms of file
specifications and program specifications, it will be very difficult to modify the programs and
data structure at a later stage by a different group. Many of program variables may be defined
differently in different programs. All these difficulties will need to excessive maintenance.
7. Low program productivity: Programmer productivity is a measure of time taken to
develop an application. If the time taken to develop an application is lesser the
programmer productivity is higher and vice versa.
DATABASE:
A database is a collection of related data (or) files. For E.g., consider the names, telephone
numbers and addresses of the people. We have recorded this data in a address book (or) we
may have stored it on a hard disk, using a computer and software such as Microsoft Excel
(or)M.S.Access.
This collection of related data is a database. The database contains one data file (or) large
no.of dat files. The database is organized in such a way that a completely program can
quickly select desired piece of data.
DataBase Management System(DBMS):
DBMS is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The
DBMS is a general software that facilitates the designing, constructing, manipulating and
sharing databases among various users and applications.

5 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Defining: Defining a database involves specifying the data type, width and constraint of the
data to be stored in the database. The database definition is stored in the form of a database
catalog (or) dictionary. It is called Meta data.
Constructing: Constructing the database is storing the data on some storage medium. i.e.,
controlled by the DBMS.
Manipulating: Manipulating a database includes functions such as inserting data, retrieving
data and deleting data.
Sharing: Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the database
simultaneously. Other important function provided by the DBMS unauthorized users cannot
access the database. We will call the database and DBMS software together a database and
DBMS together a database system.
Example of Database Management System:
Consider the example of the hospital system which deals in-patients as well as out-
patients. The hospital system is shown below.

Physician Patients Items

In-Patient Charges
Treatment

Out-Patient
Treatment

In the Conventional File Processing System there will be a separate system for in-patients.
But under the database approach, all the necessary files are included in a single database,
which minimizes redundancy of data. As a result all the drawbacks of Conventional File
Processing System are eliminated in the DataBase System.

6 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Advantages of DataBase Management System:
The Advantages of DataBase Management System are
1. Controlled Redundancy of data.
2. Consistency of data.
3. Flexibility.
4. Enhanced Data Sharing.
5. Better enforcement of standards.
6. Reduced Program maintenance
7. Increased programmer productivity.
1. Controlled Redundancy of data:
In the database approach uses a centralized database, the amount of redundancy of data
will be minimized.
2. Consistency of data:
The reduced redundancy will minimized the presence of same data in different files.
This will lead consistency of data.
3. Flexibility:
In the database approach, the database is design based on bottom up approach. In this
approach all the reports that are currently used and various expected reports are taken into
design the database. When some changes in report requirements occurs, revision of database
can be done with minor changes in the database.
4. Enhanced Data Sharing:
In database approach uses centralized database, the same file can be used different
applications. This enhances the data sharing.
5. Better Enforcement of Standards:
Since different files of the database are design at a time of a different subsystems, it will
be better enforcement of standards in terms of designing field name, field width, field type
etc.

7 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

6. Reduced Program Maintenance:
Different applications are developed under the coordination of the database
administration. As a result, there will be a integrated effort among the different groups in
terms of file design and program design. This will reduce the program maintenance.
7. Increased Program Productivity:
Programmer productivity in measure of time taken to develop an application. In the
database approach, data is separated from programs. There are many fourth generation
languages available to access and manipulate of fourth generation languages; the time taken
to develop an application will be less when compared to the time taken to develop using
conventional files processing system. This amounts to an increase in the programmer
productivity.
Application of DBMS:
The application of database are:
1. Banking: For customer information, accounts, loans, Bank transactions.
2. Airlines: For reservations and scheduled information.
3. Universities: For student information, course registration and grading.
4. Telecommunication: For keeping records of call mode, generating monthly bills, maintaining
balances on pre-paid cards and storing information about the communication Network.

Disadvantages of DBMS:

The following are the disadvantages of using DBMS.

1. Increased complexity.
2. Requirement of new and specialized manpower.
3. Large size of DBMS.
4. Increased installation and maintenance cast.
5. Conversion cost.
1. Increased complexity:
A multi user DBMS becomes an complex piece of software due to expected functionalities
from it. It becomes necessary for database designers, developers, database administrator and

8 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 end users to understand these functionalities. Failure to understand that can lead to bad
designed decisions.
2. Requirement of new and specialized manpower: Because of rapid in database technology
and organizations, business need to trained manpower on regular basis to design and
implement of database administrative services and manage a staff of new people, therefore
an organization needs to maintain specialized skill person.
3. Large size of DBMS:
The DBMS occupies many giga bytes of storage space and requires more amount of main
memory to run efficiently.
4. Increased installation and maintenance cost:
The DBMS software has a high initial cost. It requires trained person to install and operate.
and also has more annual maintenance. Installing such software’s also requires upgrades to
the hardware and software.
5. Conversion cost:
The conversion cost from old database technology to modern database environment is high.
DBMS Architecture:
1. The main aim of database system is to provide an abstract view of data hiding of certain
detail of how data is stored. And manipulated, to satisfy these needs to develop architecture
for database system.
2. In early days the whole DBMS package was a single package where as modern DBMS is based
on client-server architecture.
3. Under the client-server architecture the database is not present in the client machine. But the
client machine connected to the database system through Network and server.
4. There are two types of DBMS architecture as shown below.

User User

Application Client Application

Programer Programer

Application Server
Database
9 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Database
 Application srever
Server

Two Tire Architecture Three Tire Architecture

In two-tier architecture, the application is a component that resides on the client

machines that communicate server machine through query language statements.
In three-tier architecture, the client machine cannot directly communicate with an
application server, the application server communicates with a database to access data.
Three tier architectures are more suitable for large applications.

Database Architecture:
A database Architecture is shown below depending upon the three tier architecture. It
contains of 3 levels.

Internal level:
10 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 The internal schema defines the internal level. The internal level is the lowest level of data
abstraction. This level indicates how the data will be stored into the database and describes
the file structures and data structures and methods to be used by the data base.

Conceptual level:
The conceptual schema defines the conceptual level. The conceptual level in the middle
level abstraction. This level indicates entities, attributes, relationship between entities and
attributes.
External level:
External schema defines the external level. The external level is the highest level of data
abstraction. This level describes part of database. i.e., relevant to the user.
Data independency:
Data independency is the characteristic of database. To change the schema at one level
without changing the schema at the higher level. There are two types of data independency as
shown below.

11 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Physical independency:
In physical independency, changes to the internal schema such as file structures,
accessing methods and devices used for store the data must be possible, without changing the
conceptual schema and external schema.
Logical independency:
In logical independency, changes to the conceptual schema such as addition and
deletion of entieites, addition and deletion of attributes, addition and deletion of relationships
must be possible without change in external schema.

12 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Functions of services of DBMS:
The functions and services of DBMS are
1. Data storage Management:
DBMS creates the structure for database in the physical storage devices. It provides a
mechanism for permanent storage of data.
2. Data Manipulation Management:
The DBMS provides ability to add new data into the database (or) retrieve, update and
delete existing data in the database.
3. Data Definition Management:
The DBMS creates the structure of data in which the data is stored.
4. Data dictionary:
The DBMS provides a data dictionary in which stores the description of data items.
5. Authorization:
The DBMS protects the database against unauthorized access either intentional (or)
accidental.
6. Backup and recovery:
The DBMS provides a mechanism for Backup data periodically and recovery from
different types of failures.
7. Concurrency control:
The DBMS supports sharing of data among multiple users. The DBMS provides a
mechanism for concurrent access to the database.
8. Transaction Management:
The transaction in a series of database operations, which access (or) changes the content
of the database. This is done by the transaction management.
9. Data Independency Service:
The DBMS supports the independency of the programs from its structure of the database.
10.Integrity Service:
The DBMS provides integrity service to store the data into the database (or) to change the
data into the database follows certain rules.

Functions database Administrator:

13 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Database administrator in an individual persons with an overview of one (or) more
databases and also control the design and use of database.
Functions and responsibilities of DBA are
1. Defining conceptual schema and database creation:
The DBA creates the conceptual schema such as defining entities and attributes, deleting
entities and attributes and modifying entities and attributes etc. The DBA also creates the
structure of the database.
2. storage structure and access method definition:
The DBA defines the storage structure of the data. And access methods of the database.
3. Granting authorization to the user:
The DBA grants the access to use the database to its users. The authorization information is
kept is a system, the database system consults whenever someone attempt to access the data
in the system.
4. Routine maintenance:
The DBA maintains periodically backups of the database either on hard disc (or) CD to
prevent loss of data incase of failure.
5. Job monitoring:
The DBA is responsible for the performance of data is not decreased.

Database Systems:
The database system is composed of the five major components.
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. People
4. Producers
5. Data

14 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

1. Hardware: Hardware refers to physical components of the system.
E.g. storage devices, printers etc.
2. Software: software is a set of programs. To make database system function fully, three types
of software’s are needed. They are

a. Operating System Software

b. DBMS software.
c. Application Programs and utility software.
a. operating system software: operating system manages all hardware components and
run other software’s on the computer.
E.g. WINDOWS, LINUX
b. DBMS Software: manages the database within the database system.
E.g. Oracle, SQL, M.S.Acess

15 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 C. Application programs and utility software: Application programs are used to access and
manipulate data to generate reports and making decisions.
Utilities are the software tools used to help, manage the database systems computer
components.
3. People: There are five types of users in the database system.
a. System Administrator: to see the database systems general operation.
b. Database Administrator: see the database is functionality properly.
c. Database designers: design the database structure.
d. System analyst and programmers: Design and implement the application programs.
e. End user: use the application programs to run the organization daily operations.
4. Procedures: procedures are the set of rules based on design and use the database.
5. Data: The data is a facts stored in the database. Because data are the raw material from
which the information is generated.
Data: A system consists of interrelated entities, each entity has a set of attributes of entities
of the system.
Information: Information is nothing but processed data.
Meta data:
Meta data is the data about the data i.e., information for accessing the data.
Technology of a file:
Field: A field is the lowest level of data item of an entity which is alternatively called as an
attribute of that entity.
Emp Empno Empname Empaddress

Record: Record is the collection of fields (or) attributes of an entity.

Empno Empname Empaddress
1 sweaty banglore
File: File is a collection of records having same set of fields arranged in the same sequence.
Empno Empname Empaddress
1 manimala Chennai
2 priya Hyderabad
16 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Key field (or) Primary key: A key field is said to be key field (Or) primary key if it can
identify a record uniquely in a file.
e.g. student no in student file
emp no in emp file.
Non key field (or) secondary key: A field is said to be Non key field (or) secondary key if it
cannot identify a record uniquely in a file.
e.g. student name in student file.
Emp name in emp file.
Schema: it is a overall view of all the files in the database.
Subschema: A portion of the schema of a database is called as subschema.

17 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 CHAPTER-2

Data Models

Data Modeling and Data Models:

Data model:

A data model is a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a
database

Data modeling in the first step in designing a database refers to the process of creating a
specific data model for a problem.

A model is an abstraction of a real world object. A data model represents data structures
and their characteristics, relations, constraints and transactions.

Data model is an iterative process we start with a simple understanding of the problem
increases, and finally design a database in a specific database model.

Importance of Data Models:

1. Data Model can facilitate interaction among the designer, the application programmer and
the end user.
2. Applications are used to transform data into information. But data are viewed in different
ways by different people.
3. For e.g. the manager and clerk both are working in the same company, the manager have
wide view of company data than the clerk.
4. A company president has universal view of data.
5. Different Managers views data differently in a company. The inventory manager is more
concerned about inventory levels, while purchasing manager concerned about items and
supplies.
6. Application programmers have another view of data i.e., concerned with data locations
and formatting.
7. A house is a collection of roots, if someone is going to build a house, they have the overall
view i.e., provided by blue print. A sound data environment requires an overall database
blue print based on appropriate data model.
8. When a good database blue print is available, an application programmer view of data is
different from the managers and end users. When a good database blue print is not
available problems are likely to ensure.

18 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Data Model basic building blocks:

The basic building blocks of data models are entities, attributes, relationships and
constraints. An entity represents a real world object person (or) place.

For e.g., a customer entity have different of customers.

An attribute is a characteristic of an entity.

For e.g. customer entity have attributes customer_no, customer_name, customer_address etc.
A relationship describes an association between entities. Data models use three types of
associations. One-to-many, many-to-many and one-to-one.

One-to-many (1:M, 1…..*): A painter paints many different paintings. Therefore, the
database designer label the relationship PAINTER PAINTS PAINTINGS as one-to-many.

Many-to-many (M:N, *…….*): An employee may learn many job skills and each job skill may
be learned by many employees. Therefore, the database designer label the relationship
Employee learns skills as many-to-many (M:N).

One-to-one (1:1, 1…….1): Each store manager manages only a single store. Therefore, the
data designer label the relationship employee manages stores as one-to-one (1:1).

By using the business rules we can properly identify entities, attributes, relationships and
constraints.

Business rules:

A business rule is a description of a policy, procedure (Or) principle within a business

organization. Examples of business rule.

1. A customer may generate many invoices.

2. A training session cannot be scheduled for fever than 10 employees or for more than 30
employees. These business rules establish entities, relationships and constraints.

The first business rule establishes two entities (customer, invoices) and a one-to-many
relationship between these two entities.

The 2nd business rule establishes a constraint. (No fewer than 10 people (or) more than
30 people) and two entities (training, people) and a relationship between employee and
training.

Discovering business rules:

19 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 The main source of business rules are company manager, policy manager, department
manager and written documents such as company’s procedures, standards (or) operation
manuals. A faster direct source of business rules is direct interviews with the concerned
persons.

Translating business rules into Data Model:

General rule: A noun in a business rule be translate into an entity in that model, and a verb
associating nouns will translated into a relationship among the entities.

For e.g. the business rule “ customer may generate many voices “

Containing two nouns (customer and invoices) and a verb (generate) that associates the
noun.

To proper identify the type of relationship, the relationships are bi-directional.

For e.g. the business rule “ A customer may generate many invoices”, the relationship is
one-to-many (1:M, 1…….*). Customer is the 1 side and invoice is the many side.

Evolution of Data Models:

Generation Time Model Example

First 1960-70 File system VMS

Second 1970 Hierarchical and IMS, focus IDMS

network data
models.

Third Mid 1970’s-present Relational data M.S.Acess, Oracle

model

Fourth Mid 1980’s-present Object Oriented Versant

Model

Objectivity
Extended Relational
Model

Fifth Present-Future XML Oracle log

20 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Hierarchical Data Model:

The hierarchical data model is the oldest type of data model, developed by IBM in 1968. This
data model organizes the data in a tree-like structure, in which each child node (also known
as dependents) can have only one parent node. The database based on the hierarchical data
model comprises a set of records connected to one another through links. The link is an
association between two or more records. The top of the tree structure consists of a single
node that does not have any parent and is called the root node.

1. The hierarchical data model consists of a set of nested relationships one-to-many and one-
to-one association.
2. In hierarchical data model the relations are presented in the form of tree-structure in
which the root segment is kept at the top and further branches emanate downwards from
the root segment.
3. In this model the type of association can be one-to-one and one-to-many. This means that
many-to-one association is not permitted. This is equivalent to say that multiple
percentages for a child segment is not permitted.

The above conceptual data model can be mapped into any one ways as shown below.

21 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 An alternative1 student file is kept at the root segment of the tree and the faculty file is
kept at the bottom of the tree. By mapping the conceptual data model into the hierarchical
data model the following facts are observed.

1. The association from student to enrollment is one-to-many. This mapped without any
modifications.
2. The association from enrollment to subject is many-to-one. This is not permitted in
hierarchical data model. Hence it is modified into one-to-one association.
3. The association from subject to faculty in many-to-one. This is not permitted in
hierarchical data model. Hence it is modified into one-to-one association.

In alternative1 while mapping the conceptual data model into hierarchical data model,
the many-to-one association presents at two levels are modified into one-to-one association.
These modifications will increase the data redundancy.

In alternative2 the faculty file is kept at the root of the tree and student file is kept at
the bottom of the tree. While mapping the conceptual data model the following facts are
observed.

1. The association from faculty to subject file is one-to-many. So it is mapped without any
modifications.
2. The association from to subject enrollment is many-to-one. This is not permitted in
hierarchical data model. Hence it is modified into one-to-one association.
3. The association from enrollment to student is many-to one. This is not permitted in
hierarchical data model. Hence it is modified into one-to-one association.

Finally which alternative has less redundancy should be selected for implementation.

In alternative2, the association change between enrollment and student. That means we
are changing one type. When we compare alternative2 with alternative1, alternative2 has less
redundancy and it is implemented.

Advantages:
22 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
1. It promotes data sharing.
2. Parent/Child relationship promotes conceptual simplicity.
3. Database security is provided and enforced by DBMS.
4. Parent/Child relationship promotes data integrity.
5. It is efficient with 1:M relationships.

Disadvantages:
1. Complex implementation requires knowledge of physical data storage characteristics.
2. Changes in structure require changes in all application programs.
3. There are implementation limitations (no multi parent or M:N relationships).
4. There is no data definition or data manipulation language in the DBMS.
5. There is a lack of standards.

Network Data Model:

A Network data model consists of a set of pair wise association between the entities.

The Network data model was created to improve database performance, database
standards and represent complex relationships effectively than the hierarchical data model.

To establish database standards, the conference of database system languages (CODASYL)

created the database task group (DBTG). The DBTG define standard specifications for
database creation and data manipulations.

1. Schema: The schema provides overall view of the database to the administrator.
2. Sub Schema: The sub schema which defines the portion of the database seen by the
application programs.
3. Database Management Language: That defines the environment in which data can be
changed. The DBTC specify 3 DML components.
a. A schema data Definition Language (DDL), which enables the data base administrator
to create the database.
b. A subschema DDL, which allows the application programs to define database
component that will be used by the application.
c. A Data Manipulation Language, to manipulate the data in the database.

In Network data model, the Network database as a collection of records in one-to-

many record to have more than one parent.

In Network database, a relationship is called a set. Each set contains two entities one
entity is owner and other entity is member.

23 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

24 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Sets

Set Name Owner Member

Ordered Customer Sales

Buyers Book Sales

Contribute Author Book

Catalog Publisher Book

Advantages:

1. Conceptual simplicity is at least equal to that of the hierarchical model.

2. It handles more relationship types, such as M:N and multi-parent.

3. Data access is more flexible than in hierarchical and file system models.

4. Data Owner/Member relationship promotes data integrity.

5. There is conformance to standards.

6. It includes data definition language (DDL) and data manipulation language (DML) in DBMS

Disadvantages:

1. System complexity limits efficiency—still a navigational system.

2. Navigational system yields complex implementation, application development, and

management.

3. Structural changes require changes in all application programs.

Relational data model:

The relational model was introduced in 1970 by E.M.Codd. The foundation of relation is
a mathematical concept known as relation. The Relation is composed of intersecting rows and
columns. Each row in a relation represents a tuple. Each column represents an attribute.

The relational data model is implemented through a Relational Database Management

System (RDBMS).

25 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Tables are related through the sharing of common attribute. For e.g. the table agent and
customer as shown below.

Agent

Agent_Code Agent_Name Agent_Addres Agent_PhoneN Agent_Area

s o code

Customer

Cust_No Cust_name Cust_Address Phone_No Agent_Code

By matching the Agent_Code in the customer table with Agent_Code in the Agent table we can
find Agent details of that customer.

The relationship types one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many have in a relational

data model.

A relationship diagram is a representation of entities, the attributes within the entities and
the relationship between the entities.

Agent Customer

Agent_Code Cust_No

Agent_Name Cust_name

Agent_Address Cust_Address

Agent_PhoneNo Phone_No

Agent_Area code Agent_Code

In the above diagram, the relationship is one-to-many. The symbol ∞ indicates many.

The customer represents “many” sides, because an AGENT can have many CUSTOMERS.
26 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 The AGENT represents the “1” side because each CUSTOMER has only one AGENT.

The languages which are supported to relational data model is powerful and
flexible. Because of that the relational data model is popular. FoxPro, database,
M.S.Acess, SQL are relational database software’s. This software’s allows the user to
specify what must be done without specifying how it must be done.

SQL based database applications involves 3 parts. 1. End user interface. 2. Set of tables
stored in the database. 3. SQL Engine.

Advantages:

1. Structural independence is promoted by the use of independent tables. Changes in a table’s

structure do not affect data access or application programs.

2. Tabular view substantially improves conceptual simplicity, thereby promoting easier

database design, implementation, management, and use.

3. Ad hoc query capability is based on SQL.

4. Powerful RDBMS isolates the end user from physical-level details and improves
implementation and management simplicity.

Disadvantages:

1. The RDBMS requires substantial hardware and system software overhead.

2. Conceptual simplicity gives relatively untrained people to use a good system poorly, and if
unchecked, it may produce the same data anomalies found in file systems.

3. It may promote “islands of information” problems as individuals and departments can

easily develop their own applications.

Entity relation model:

Peter Chen first introduced the E.R.data model in 1976; it was the graphical
representation of entities and their relationship in a database.

E.R. models are normally represented in an entity relationship diagram.

The E.R.Model is based on the following components.

a. Entity: entities are the real time objects. Entities represented by a rectangle.
e.g. painter, employee, skills, noun.
b. Attribute: Attributes are the characteristics of entities.
e.g. Empno, Empname, Empaddress etc.

27 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 c. Relationships: A relationship describes association among the entities. There are
three types of relationships, one-to-many, many-to-many and one-to-one.

There are two types of ER notations.

1. Chen notation
2. Crow’s foot notation.
For different types of relationships.

CHEN NOTATION

Crown’s Foot Notation

In Chen notation, entities are represented rectangle and entity names are written in the
capital letters at the centre of the rectangle. Relationships are represented by a diamond. The
diamonds are connected to entities through a relationship name is written inside the
diamond.
In the crows foot notation, the crow foot is derived from the three pronged symbol used
to represent many relationships. In this notation, the one represented by a short line

28 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

segments, and many is represented by the crow’s foot. The relationship name is written
above the relationship line. The relationships are also show in vertical.

Advantages:
1. Visual modeling yields exceptional conceptual simplicity.
2. Visual representation makes it an effective communication tool.
3. It is integrated with dominant relational model.
Disadvantages:
1. There is limited constraint representation.
2. There is limited relationship representation.
3. There is no data manipulation language.
4. Loss of information content occurs when attributes are removed from entities to avoid
crowded displays. (This limitation has been addressed in subsequent graphical versions)

Object Oriented Model:

In the Object Oriented Data Model (OODM) both data and their relationships are
contained in a single structure known as an Object.
Object Oriented Data Model has allowed an object, the object contains operations that
can be performed on it, such as changing data values, finding a specific data value, and
printing data values.
The OODM is based on the following components.
a. An object is an abstraction of a real world entity.
b. Attributes describes the properties of an object.
E.g. Person object contains the attribute name, social security number, date of birth
etc.
c. A collection of similar objects contains attributes and methods. By using those
methods change data values, find data values and print data values in the objects.
d. Classes are organized in a class hierarchic key. The class hierarchic key is similar to
upside down tree. In which each class has only one parent.
e. One of the properties of object oriented data model is inheritance. By using the
inheritance we can inherit attributes and methods from super class to sub classes.
E.g. customer and employee sub classes of the person super class. Customer and
employee will inherit all attributes and methods from person.
f. Object oriented data models are drawn using unified modeling language (UML) class
diagram. The UML class diagrams are used to represent data and other their
relationships.

For E.g. Let us use invoice program. In this case the invoices are generated by customer, each
invoice contains one (or) more lines, and each line represents an item purchased by
customer.

29 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 The following diagram shows an object representation UML class diagram, ER model for
invoice.

30 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The object representation of invoice includes all the related objects within the same object.
The 1 next to the customer object indicates that each invoice related to one customer. The M
next to the line object indicates that each invoice contains no. of lines.

The UML class diagram uses 3 separate classes (customer, invoice and line) and two
relationships to represent this problem.

The E.R Model also uses the 3 separate entities and two relationships to represent the
invoice problem.

Advantages:

1. Semantic content is added.

2. Visual representation includes semantic content.

3. Inheritance promotes data integrity.

Disadvantages:

1. Slow development of standards caused vendors to supply their own enhancements, thus
eliminating a widely accepted standard.

2. It is a complex navigational system.

3. There is a steep learning curve.

4. High system overhead slows transactions

Chapter -3
Relational Database Model
31 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 In Relational Data base model records are stored into tables. Relational data model is easier
to understand than the hierarchal data models and network data models. Relational data model
provides a logical view of the data and its relationship among other data.
Tables and Characteristics:
A Table is composed of rows and columns. Each row of the table is called as tuple. Each
column of the table is called as attribute. A table is also called as Relation. A table contains a
group of related entities.
Characteristics of a Table:
1. A table is composed of rows and columns.
2. Each row of the table represents one entity (tuple) in the entity set.
3. Each column represents an attribute and each column has distinct name.
4. Each cell represents a single value.
5. All values in a column must have same data format.
6. Each column has a specified range of values which is called domain.
7. The order of the rows and columns is immaterial to the DBMS.
8. Each table must have an attribute or group of attributes that uniquely identified each
row.

The following Student table shows above characteristics.

1. The student is composed of 8 tuples (rows) and 6 attributes (columns).

2. In the student table the primary key is STU_NUM(student number) by using this
attribute we can identify a record uniquely in a student table.

Keys
Key field or Primary Field:
A key consists of one or more attributes that determines other attributes. For example, an
invoice number identifies attributes such as invoice date, customer details, items details and
amount.
The statement “A DETERMINES B” indicates that if we know the value of attribute A then
determine the value of B.
Eg: In the student table if we know the value of student number then determines student last
name, st_fname, stu_inital. This can be represented in the following way.
STU_NUMSTU_LNAME, STU_FNAME, STU_INIT.

Functional Dependency:
The term Functional Dependency can be defined for “A DETERMINES B”, if each value in a
column “A” determines only one value in column B.
32 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Eg: STU_NUM functionally determines STU_LNAME ( or STU_LNAME functionally depends on
STU_NUM).
STU_NUM STU_LNAME.

Composite Key or Fully Functional Dependency:

A key may be composed of more than one attribute; such a multi attribute key is known as
Composite key.
Eg: STU_LNAME, STU_FNAME, STU_INIT, PHONE_NO STU_CLASS,STU_HOURS.

The combination of STU_LNAME, STU_FNAME, STU_INIT, PHONE_NO can determine the

STU_CLASS, STU_HOURS. If the attribute “B” is functionally depends on “A”. composite key
“A”, but not on any subset of composite key. The attribute “B” is fully functionally depends on
“A”.

Super Key : A sub set of Attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple(row) in a relation(table).
Eno Ename Salary Dept_no Voter_Id

1 Raju 20000 10 V12345

2 Prasad 40000 10 V12222

3 Raju 20000 20 V45666

{Eno } No two rows have same Eno ( Eno uniquely identifies a tuple(row) in a
relation)
{Ename } Two employee’s may have same name.
{Voter_id} No two rows have same Voter_id (Voter_id uniquely identifies a tuple(row) in a
relation)
{Eno, Ename } Eno itself uniquely identifies a tuple(row) in a relation, hence combination of
Eno and
Ename also uniquely identifies a tuple(row) in a relation

Eg: In student table

STUDENT{STU_NUM,STU_LNAME,STU_FNAME,STU_INIT,STU_DOB,STU_HRS,STU_CLASS}
Super Keys can be identified as fallows.
 {STU_NUM}
 {STU_NUM, STU_LNAME}
 {STU_NUM, STU_LNAME, STU_INIT}

*Minimal Super Key (Key) :

33 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Definition : A Minimal Super Key (Key) K is a superkey with the additional property that
removal of any attribute from K will cause K not to be a superkey any more.
{Eno } is Minimal Super Key ( A Super Key which have only one attribute is Minimal
Super Key)
{Voter_id} is Minimal Super Key
{Eno, Ename } is Not a Minimal Super Key ( Removal of Ename from {Eno, Ename} = {Eno} is
also a
Super Key } hence {Eno, Ename} is not Minimal Super Key.
*Candidate Key :
Definition : If a relation schema has more than one key (Minimal Super Key) then each of them
is called as candidate key.
 One of the candidate keys is arbitrarily designated to be the primary key, and the
others are called secondary keys(or Alternative key).
 A key formed by combining at least two or more columns is called composite key
*Primary Key :
Definition : Set of attributes of a relation which uniquely identifies a tuple in a relation.

Note :
A Relation(table) can have many Superkeys, and also many Minimal Superkeys.
If a Relation(table) has more than on Minimal Superkeys each can be called as Candidate
Keys.
One of the candidate keys is arbitrarily designated to be the primary key, and the others are
called secondary keys(or Alternative key).

Key Hierarchy

34 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

  Primary key doesn’t allows duplicates and Null Values.

Foreign Key:
A foreign key is an attribute whose values match the primary key values in the related
table.

Foreign Key (Referential Integrity Constraint) :

Referential Integrity Constraint is used to specify interdependencies between relations. This
constraint specifies a column or list of columns as a foreign key of the referencing table.
 A foreign key means the values of a column in one table must also appear in a column
in another table. The foreign key in the child table will generally reference a primary
key in the parent table. The referencing table is called the child table & referenced
table is called the parent table
 Self Referential Integrity Constraint mean a column in one table references the
primary key column(s) in the same table.
EMP Referencing relation

Eno Ename Salary Dept_no Voter_Id

(FK)

1 raju 20000 10 V12345

2 ravi 40000 10 V12222

3 Raju 25000 20 V45666

In EMP table Eno is Primary Key. (Duplicates and Null values are not allowed in Eno)

35 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

In EMP table Dept_no is foreign key which references DEPT table Dept_no column. (A value
for Dept_no in EMP table accepts only if it exists in Dept_no column in DEPT table.)
DEPT Referenced relation

Dept_no Dname Dloc

(PK)

10 MTech BVRM

20 MBA HYD

30 MCA BVRM

In DEPT table Dept_no is Primary key.

Secondary Key:
The secondary key is defined as a key that is used to for data retrieval purpose.
Example: In the customer table the data retrieval can be facilitated when CUST_LAST and
CUST_PHONE number are used.

Integrity Rules:
Integrity rules are used in the database design.
1. Entity Integrity: All primary key entries are unique and no part of the primary key may
be NULL.
Example: In Agent table the agent_code is primary key and this column is free from
null values.
2. Referential Integrity: A foreign key is an attribute whose values match the primary key
values in the related table.
Example: The vendor_code is the primary key in the vendor key and it occurs as a
foreign key.
3. NOT NULL: NOT NULL constraint can be placed in a column while inserting a row that
column must have a value.
4. Unique: Unique constraint can be placed in a column while inserting a row that column
have unique values. (No duplication).

Relational Set Operators:

36 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The relational set operators are SELECT, PROJECT, JOIN, INTERSECT, UNION, DIFFERENCE,
PRODUCT, DIVIDE.
1. UNION:
The UNION operator combines all rows from two tables, excluding duplicate rows. The
tables must have the same structure.
Product 1

Product 2

Query: Product 1 union product 2

2. INTERSECT:

37 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 The INTERSECT operator gives only the rows that are appear in both tables. The tables
are also have same structure.

3. DIFFERENCE:
The DIFFERENCE operator gives all rows in one table that are not found in other table.

STUDENT EMPLOYEE

QUERY: STUDENT MINUS EMPLOYEE

38 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

4. PRODUCT:
The PRODUCT operator gives all possible pair of rows from two tables.

5. SELECT:

The SELECT operator gives all rows that satisfies a given condition.

SQL> Select product where P_CODE=311452.

6. PROJECT:
39 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 The PROJECT operator gives all values for selected attributes. In other words project gives
a vertical subset of tables.

Project P_DESCRIPT Product;

7. JOIN: The JOIN operator combines rows from 2 or more tables. There are several types of
joins.

a. Natural Join
A Natural Join joins tables by selecting the rows with common values in their common
attributes. A natural join is the result of a three-stage process:
1). First, a PRODUCT of the tables is created, yielding the results shown in Figure 3.12.

Query: SQL> Product NATURAL JOIN Vendor

40 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

2). Second, a SELECT is performed on the output of Step a to yield only the rows for which the
AGENT_CODE values are equal. The common columns are referred to as the join columns.

3). A PROJECT is performed on the results of Step b to yield a single copy of each attribute,
thereby eliminating duplicate columns.

The final outcome of a natural join yields a table that does not include unmatched pairs and
provides only the copies of the matches.

41 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

b. Equijoin:
In Equijoin the tables on the basis of equality condition that compares specified
columns of each table. In Equijoin the comparison operator Is Equal To is used in the
condition.
Or
Inner join produces only the set of records that match in both Table A and Table B.

Product:
Prod_code Prod_Descp Vend_code

123 tyres V101

124 tubes V102

125 Bolts -------

Vendor:
Vend_code Vend-name

V101 ravi

V102 ram

V103 krishna

Result:
Prod_code Prod_Descp Vend_code Vend-name

123 Tyres V101 ravi

124 Tubes V102 ram

Outer Join:
In the Outer Join the matched pair of records would be written and any unmatched
values in other table would be NULL.

c. Left Outer Join:

The Left Outer Join matched the records would be return and any unmatched values in
the other table would be NULL.

42 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

d. Right Outer Join:
In Right Outer Join the matched records would be and any unmatched values in the
right table would be NULL.

e. Full Outer Join:

Full outer join produces the set of all records in Table A and Table B, with matching
records from both sides where available. If there is no match, the missing side will
contain null.

Product:
Prod_code Prod_Descp Vend_code

123 tyres V101

124 tubes V102

125 Bolts -------

Vendor:

Vend_code Vend-name

V101 ravi

V102 ram

V103 krishna

Result:

Prod_code Prod_Descp Vend_code Vend-name

43 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 123 Tyres V101 ravi

124 Tubes V102 ram

125 Bolts ---------- -----------

--------- ---------- V103 krishna

8. DIVIDE:
The DIVIDE operator uses one single column table as a deviser and two column table as
the dividend. The output of DIVIDE operator is a single column with a values column-A
from the dividend table rows where the values of the common column in both tables
match.

Data Dictionary:
The Data Dictionary provides a description of all tables in the database. The Data Dictionary
contains attribute names and characteristics of each table in the system. The data dictionary
contains meta data.
Example:

44 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

System Catalog:
Like the Data Dictionary, System Catalog contains metadata. The system catalog describes
table names, table creator, and creation of data, Number of column in each table, the data
types of the column, authorized users and access privileges.
Relationships within Relational Databases

The relationships are classified into One-to-Many, One-to-One and Many-to-Many.

One-to-Many (1:M) relationship

One entity of one table is associated with number of entities into other tables.
Consider the “Painter Paints Paintings” the ER Model and implementations are shown below.

One-to-One
In this relationship one entity of one table is associated with one entity of other table and
vice-versa.
Consider the PROFESSOR AND DEPARTMENT. The ER data model and implementation are
shown in below.

45 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

May-to-Many (M:M) relationship
In this relationship each and every entity of one file will be associated with one or more
entities of another tables and vice versa. This relationship is not supported in relational
environment. The many to many relationship can be converted into two One to Many
relationships.
Consider student and subjects example. The ER model and implementation are shown in
below.

In above each and every entity of student file is associated with one or more entities of the
subject table because each student will opt one or more subjects in a semester.
Each and every entity of subject file is associated with one or more entities of student table
because each sub will be opted by more than one student in a semester. Many to Many
associations are not supported.
Hence the relationship will be converted into two one to many associations are as shown
below by introducing an intermediate table in which the common data of the original file are
stored.

Index: An Index is composed of and index key and set of points. Each key points to the
location of data identified by the key.
Example: Suppose we want to look up all of the paintings created by the given painter
without an index, we must read each row in the painting table. If we index the painter table
and use the index key of painter number, we look up appropriate painter number in the index

46 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

and find the matching pointers.

DBMSs use indexes for many different purposes. You just learned that an index can be
used to retrieve data more efficiently. But indexes can also be used by a DBMS to retrieve
data ordered by a specific attribute or attributes.
For example, creating an index on a customer’s last name will allow you to retrieve the
customer last name in alphabetical ordered.
Indexes play an important role in DBMS for implementation of primary keys. When we
define a table primary key the DBMS automatically creates an unique index on the primary
key column.
When we declare the customer-code to be the primary key of the customer table, the
DBMS automatically creates a unique index on that attribute.An unique index is an index in
which the index key can have one pointer.

Codd`s Relational Database Rules

Dr E F Codd published a list of 12 rules to define a relational database.
Rule 1: Information:
All information in a relational database must be logically represented column values in rows
with tables.
Rule 2: Guaranteed Access:
Every value in a table is guaranteed to be accessible through a combination of table name,
primary key and column name.
Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of NULLs:
NULL must be represented and treated in a systematic way (Independent of data type).
Rule 4: Dynamic online catalog based on the relation:
The metadata must be stored as ordinary data in a table within the database. Such data must
be available to authorized users.
Rule 5: Comprehensive data sub language:
The relational database may support many languages. However it must support data
definition, view definition, data manipulation integrity constraints, authorizations and
transaction management.
Rule 6: View Update:
Any view i.e., theoretically must be updatable through the system.
Rule 7: High level Insert, Update and Delete:
47 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
The database must support insert, update and delete.
Rule 8: Physical data independency:
Application programs are logically unaffected when storage structures are changed.
Rule 9: Logical data independency:
Application programs are logically unaffected when changes are made to the table structures.
Rule 10: Integrity Independency:
All relational integrity constraints must be definable in the relational language and stored in
the system catalogs.
Rule 11: Distribution Independency:
The end users and application programs are unaffected by the data locations.
Rule 12: Non Sub Version:
If the system support low level access to the data, there must not be a way to bypass the
integrity rules of the database.

Unit-II: Data Modeling and Normalization:

48 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

2.1 Entity Relationship Model:
 The ER Model,
 Developing ER Diagram,
 DatabaseDesign Challenges: Conflicting Goals.
2.2 Advanced Data Modeling:
 The Extended Entity Relationship Model,
 Entityclustering,
 Entity integrity: Selecting Primary keys,
 Design Cases: Learning Flexible Database Design.
2.3 Normalization of database tables:
 Database Tables and Normalization,
 The need forNormalization,
 The Normalization Process,
 Improving the design,
 Surrogate Key Considerations,
 High level Normal Forms,
 Normalization and database design,
 De-normalization.

Chapter - 4
Entity Relationship Modeling
49 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
The Entity Relationship modeling forms an Entity Relationship diagram. The ERD represents
the conceptual database. The Entity Relationship diagram contains mainly three components.
Entity, Attribute and Relationship.
Entity: An Entity represents a real world object.
Eg: Student, Customer, Employee, Subject, Faculty, and Product
In chen and crow foot notation an entity is represented by rectangle containing entity name.
The entity names usually return in capital letters.

Attributes: An Attribute represents characteristics are properties of an entities.

Eg: stu_name , stu_address
In chen notation the attributes are represented by Vowels and are connected to the entity
rectangle with a line .Each vowel contains name of the Attribute.

In the cross foot Notation the attributes are written in the attribute box below the entity
rectangle.

Required and Optional Attribute:

A Required is an Attribute that must have a value. An Optional Attribute is an Attribute
that does not have a value.
In the Crows foot Notation the required Attributes are represented by bold face.
50 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Domain: Attributes have a domain. A domain is the set of possible values for a given
Attributes.
Eg: The domain for the gender attribute consists of only two possibilities namely male and
female.
Identifiers: Identifiers contains one attributes that uniquely identify an entity in the entity
set. In relational model, such identifiers are mapped to primary keys in the table. Identifiers
are undermined in the ER diagram.
For Eg. STUDENT(Sto_no, Stu_fname, Stu_Lname, Stu_email);
Composite Identifier: A Composite Identifier is a primary Key contains more than one
attribute.
For Eg. To identify the each student entity by using a composit primary key composed of the
combination of Stu_Lname and Stu_Fname instead of using Stu_no.
Composite and Single Attribute: Attributes are classified as single Attribute or Composite
Attribute.
A Single Attribute is an attribute that cannot be sub divided.
Eg: Age, F_name , Gender.
A Composite Attribute is an Attribute that can be further sub divided which gives additional
Attributes.
Eg: Address can be sub divided into street , city and pincode.
Single Attribute: A Single Attribute ia an attribute that can have only one value.
Eg: STU_Number in the STUDENT TABLE.
Multi Value Attribute: A multi value Attribute is an attribute that can have many values.
Eg: A car color may be sub divided into many colors.
In Chenn notation , the multivalued attributes are shown by a double line connecting to the
attribute to entity.

51 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Note: The crows foot notation does not identify multivalued attributes.

Derived Attribute: A Derived Attribute is an attribute whose values are calculated from
other Attributes.
Eg: An Employee age computing difference between current data and the employee date of
birth.
A Derived Attribute is indicated in a chen’s Notation by a dashed line by the connecting to the
attribute and entity.

Relationship: The Relationship is an Association between entities.

Eg: A professor teaches a class.
There are three different types of relationships
1. One- One
2. One- Many
3. Many-Many
Connectivity and cardinality:
Cardinality Express the minimum and maximum number of entities occurrences
associated with one occurrence of the related entity.
In the ERD the cardinality is indicated by placing the appropriate numbers beside the
entities using the format(x, y).
The first value represents the minimum number of associated entities. The second
value represents the maximum number of associated entities.
For Eg:

52 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The cardinality (1,1) indicates that each class is taught by only one professor.
The cardinality (1,4) indicates one entity in the professor relation associate not more
than four times in the entities of the class Relation.
Existence Dependency: An Entity is said to be existence dependency when the entity is
associated with another related entity.
Weak Relationship: A weak relationship exists if the primary key of the entity does not
contain component of the parent entity.
COURSE(CRS_CODE, DEPT_CODE, CRS_DESCRIPTION, CRS_CREDIT)

CLASS(CLASS_CODE, CRS_CODE, CLASS_SECTION, CLASS_TIME, ROOM_CODE, PROF_NUM)

The Relationship between course and class is weak because the class_code is the
primary key in the class entity while the course_code in the class is foreign key. In this
example the class primary key did not inherit the primary key components from the course
entity.

A Relationship exist if the primary key of the related by contains a primary key
component of the parent entity. The relationship between course and class is strong because
the class entity composite entity key is composed of class_code+ Crs_code. The class primary
key inherit the primary key component from the course entity. In the strong relationship we
can write ‘o’ symbol next to the entity.
Weak Entity: In Weak Entity the primary key is primary key is partially as totally derived
from the parent entity in the relationship .For example: The dependent entity key was
inherited from the employee entity as show below.

53 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Employee (Emp_no, Emp_LName, Emp_FName,Emp_init.Emp_dob).
Dependent (Emp_no, Dept_no, Dept_LName,Dept_FName, Dept_dob).
In chen Notation the Weak entity is represented by double weak entity.

Strong Entity: In Strong entity the primary key has not partially or totally derived from the
parent entity in the relationship. For example in the course and class relationship the class
table primary key is class code which is not derived from the course parent key. The entity
class is a strong entity.
Class(class_code, course_code,class_desc,class_time, prof_code)
In the Course and Class relationship is composed of class_code and course_code is derived
from the course parent entity. The entity class is a weak entity.
Class(class_code, course_code, desc,class_time, prof_code)
Relationship Participation: The Relationship Participation between the entities is either
optional or mandatory.
Optional participation
Optional participation means that one entity occurrences does not require a corresponding
entity occurrence in a particular Relationship.
Eg: “course generate class” relationship an entity occurrence in the course table does not
necessary require the corresponding entity occurrences in the class table.
In the crows foot notation an optional relationship between entities is shown by drawing a
circle on the side of optional entity. The minimum cardinality is zero for the optional entity.

HEAR CLASS IS OPTIONAL TO COURSE

Mandatory participation means that one entity occurrence requires a corresponding entity
occurrence in a particular relationship.
Eg 1: “course generate class” relationship an entity occurrences in the course table necessary
require the corresponding entity occurrences in the class table.
In the crows foot Notation there is no separate symbol for the mandatory entity. The
minimum cardinality is one for the mandatory entity.

54 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 (HEAR COURSE AND CLASS IS MANDATORY RELEATIONSHIP)
Eg 2: The “Professor teaches class” relationship it possible for a professor not to teach a class.
Therefore class is optimal to the professor on other hand a class a class must be taught by a
professor. Therefore the professor is mandatory on other hand a class must be taught by a
professor. Therefore the professor is mandatory a class.

The cardinality (1,1) represents one class is taken by one professor. The cardinality (0,3)
indicates the professor may teach no classes or theory classes.
The following table shows various cardinalities that are supported by crow’s foot notation.

Relationship Degree: A Relationship Degree indicates the number of entities associated with
a relationship.
A Unary Relationship: A Unary Relationship exists when an association is maintained within
a single entity.

Eg: An Employee within the employee entity is the manger for one or more entities within
that entity.

55 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Binary Relationship: A binary relationship exists when two entities are associated.

Eg: The relationship a professor teaches one or more class.

Ternary Relationship: A ternary relationship exists when three entities are associated.
Eg: A doctor writes one or more prescription
A patient may receive one or more prescription
A drug may appear one or more prescription

Recursive Relationship: A Recursive Relationship is one in which a relationship between

the same entity set.
There are three types of Recursive Relationships
1. One- One
2. One- Many
3. Many-Many
One to One: A One to One unary relationship may be expressed by an employee may be
married to one and only one other employee.

One to Many: A One to Many unary relationships may be expressed by an employee may
manage many employees.

56 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Many to Many: The Many to Many relationship may be expressed by a course may be pre
requisite to many other courses.

Associative Entities: The associative Entity is used to implement a many to many

relationship between entities. This associated entity is composed of the primary key of each
of the entites to be connected.
Example: The Crown foot notation the relationship between the parent and child entities
indicates the strong relationship.

Developing an ER diagram:

57 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 The process of database design is an Iterative process rather than a sequential process.
Building an ER diagram, usually involves the following Activities.
1. Create a detailed description of operation of the organization.
2. Identify the business rules from the description.
3. Identify entities, Attributes and relationship from the business rules.
4. Developing the initial ERD.
5. Identify the attributes and primary keys.
6. Revise and review the ERD
During the review process additional objects, attributes and relationships will be covered.
Therefore the basic ERD will be modified to incorporate the newly discovered components.
Eg: Let us with initial interviews with the tiny college administrator and the interview
process gives the following business rules.
1. Tiny college is divided into several schools a school of business, a school of Arts and
Science, a school of education a school of applied sciences, each school is administrated
by a deal who is a professor.
2. Each school is composed of several departments.

3. Each department may offer several courses.

4. Each course may operate several classes.

58 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

5. Each department may have professors one and only one of those professors chairs the
department and no professor is required to accept the chair position.

6. Each professor may teach the classes. A professor may not teach the class.

7. A student may enroll several classes, each class contains several students. Student is
optional to class in the many to many relationships. This many to many relationship
must be divided into two one to many relationship through many enroll entities.

8. Each department has several students.

59 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

9. Each student has an Adviser in Department, each Adviser consists several students. An
Adviser is also a professor, but not all professor advice students.

10. A building contains Rooms and room is used for classes.

60 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The following diagram shows crows foot ERD for tiny college.

Database Design Challenges: Conflicting Goals

61 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Database Design Challenges:

Database designers often must make design compromises that are triggered by conflicting
goals, such as adherence to design standards (design elegance), processing speed, and
information requirements.
Design standards:
The database design must conform to design standards. Such standards have guided you in
developing logical structures that minimize data redundancies.
In short, design standards allow you to work with well-defined components and to evaluate
the interaction of those components with some precision.
Processing speed:
In many organizations, particularly those generating large numbers of transactions, high
processing speeds are often a top priority in database design.
High processing speed means minimal access time.

If the focus is on data-retrieval speed, you might also be forced to include derived attributes
in the design.
Information requirements:
The quest for timely information might be the focus of database design. Complex information
requirements may dictate data transformations, and they may expand the number of entities
and attributes within the design.
Therefore, the database may have to sacrifice some of its “clean” design structures and/or
some of its high transaction speed to ensure maximum information generation.
A design that meets all logical requirements and design conventions is an important goal.
However, if this perfect design fails to meet the customer’s transaction speed and/or
information requirements, the designer will not have done a proper job from the end user’s
point of view.
Compromises are a fact of life in the real world of database design.

Even while focusing on the entities, attributes, relationships, and constraints, the designer
should begin thinking about end-user requirements such as performance, security, shared
access, and data integrity.

Finally, prepare the document! Put all design activities in writing. Then review what you’ve
written.

Chapter - 5
62 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Normalization of Database Tables

Database Tables & Normalization:

1. In Database designed process, the table is the basic building block.

2. The ER model gives good table structure. But it is possible to create poor table
structure. Even in a good database structure design.

Def:

Normalization is an Analysis of functional dependency between the attributes of a

relation. It reduces the complex user view into set of stable sub groups or fields.

The normalization process is used to create a good table structure to minimize data
redundancy.

Normalization works through a series of stages called normal form.

The first three stages are

 First Normal Form(1NF)

 Second Normal Form(2NF)
 Third Normal Form(3NF)

Business Databases: Business databases are sufficient to normalize to 2NF or 3NF. The
other stages are

 Boyce Code Normal Form (BCNF)

 Fourth Normal Form(4NF)
 Fifth Normal Form (5NF)

Normalization is a very important in database design .Generally the higher normal

forms, the more relational join operations required to produce a specific output. Therefore
occasionally we accepted to denormalize some positions of the database to increase the
efficiency.

DeNormalization produces a lower normal form i.e., 3NF will be connected into 2NF
will be converted.

The need for Normalization:

63 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Consider the Database activities of a construction company that manages several building
projects. Each Project has its own project number and project name, employee assigned to it
and soon. Each employee has employee number, employee name, classification etc.

The Easiest way to generate the required report to create a table that table has some fields of
the Report.

An Employee can be assigned more than one project.

For example: Employee number 104 has been assigned to two project .Therefore knowing the
project _no and employee no will find the job classification and house worked. Therefore
project_No and emp_no will be taken as primary key.

The above structure of the table has the following deficiency

1. The project _no is a part of primary key. But it contains null values.
2. The table entries invites data inconsistency for example job classification value
Electrical_Engineer might be entered.Elec_engi ,EE
3. The table displays data redundancy.
Update Anomalies: Modify the job class for Employee_No 105 requires many
alternatives.
Insertion Anomalies: To complete a row definition of a new employee must be
assigned to a project. If the employee is not assigned, a dummy project must be created
to complete the row.
Deletion Anomalies: Suppose only one employee is associated with a project, if that
employee leaves the company and the employee data are deleted, the project
information will also be deleted.
The above deficiency of table structure appears to work, the report gives
different results depending on data.

64 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 For Example to print a report to show the total hours worked by the job
classification. Database designer will not include data for “DB designer “ and “DD” data
entries.

Normalization Process: The most common Normal forms and their characteristics are

1. First Normal Form (1NF): A Relation is said to be in first normal form if it is already
in un normalized form and it has no repeating group.
2. Second Normal Form (2NF): A Relation is said to be in second normal form if it is
already in first normal form and it has no partial dependency.
3. Third Normal Form (3NF): A Relation is said to be in third Normal form if it is
already in second normal form and it has no transitive dependency.
4. Boyce code Normal Form(BCNF): A Relation is said to be in Boyce code Normal form
if it is already in third normal form and every determinant is a candidate key.
5. Fourth Normal Form (4NF): A Relation is said to be in fourth normal form if it is
already in Boyce code normal form and it has no multi valued dependency.
6. Fifth Normal Form(5NF): A Relation is said to be fifth normal form if it is already in
fourth normal form and it has no loss less decompose.

Eg: Normalization of construction company Report

Project Project Emp- Emp- Job Charge Hours Total

no Name No Name Classification Per Billed Charge
Hour

The construction company report is represented in the form of relation. The relation named
as CONSTRUCTION_COMPANY this is in un normalized form as shown below

CONSTRUCTION_COMPANY(Proj_No,Proj_Name,(Emp_No,Emp_Name, Job_Classification,
Charge_Per_Hour, Hours_ Billed) ----- (1)

The field Total charge, SUB TOTAL,GRAND TOTAL are not included in the relation because
they are derived Attribute.

Database Keys

65 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Keys are very important part of Relational database. They are used to establish and identify
relation between tables. They also ensure that each record within a table can be uniquely
identified by combination of one or more fields within a table.

Super Key

Super Key is defined as a set of attributes within a table that uniquely identifies each record
within a table. Super Key is a superset of Candidate key.

Candidate Key

Candidate keys are defined as the set of fields from which primary key can be selected. It is an
attribute or set of attribute that can act as a primary key for a table to uniquely identify each
record in that table.

Primary Key

Primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to become main key of the table. It is
a key that uniquely identify each record in a table.

Composite Key

Key that consist of two or more attributes that uniquely identify an entity occurance is called
Composite key. But any attribute that makes up the Composite key is not a simple key in its
own.

Secondary or Alternative key

66 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The candidate key which are not selected for primary key are known as secondary keys or
alternative keys

Non-key Attribute

Non-key attributes are attributes other than candidate key attributes in a table.

First Normal Form:

In Relation (1), the fields in the inner most set of parenthesis put together is known as
repetating group. This will result in redundancy of data for the first two relations remove the
repetating group.

PROJECT(proj_No,proj_Name) ----------> (2)

PROJECT_EMP (Proj_No, Emp_No,Emp_Name,Job_Class,Charge_Per_Hour,Hours_Billed) ------

(3)

Now above relation (2) & (3) are in 1NF. In relation (3) Proj_No , Emp_No jointly serve as key

field.

Second Normal Form:

Definition of Partial Dependency:

One non key attribute is depending on the part of the composit primary key then
it is said to be Partial Dependency.

In Relation 2 the number key fields is only one and hence there is no scope for partial
dependency the absence of partial dependency in relation 2 takes it 2NF without any
modification.

The dependency diagram of relation 3 is shown below

67 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

In the above diagram hours build depends on Project_No and Emp_No but the remaining non
key fields (Emp_Name,Job_Class,Charge_per_Hour)depends on Emp_No this situation is an
example of 2nd normal form .Hence the relation 3 is divided into 2 relations.

Assignment(Proj_No, Emp_No, Hours_Billed)------------(4)

Emp_Job(Emp_No,Emp_Name,Job_Class,Charge-Per_Hour)--------------(5)

The Relations (4) & (5) are in 2NF

Third Normal Form:

Transitive Dependency:

If one non prime attribute is determines the other non prime attribute then it is
called as transitive dependency..

In Relation (2) there is only one non key field. This means that it has no transitive
dependency. Hence Relation (2) can be treated as 3NF without any modification similarly in
relation (4) there is only one non key field. This means that it has no transitive dependency.
Hence relation (4) can be related as 3Nf in without any modification.

In Relation(5) Charge_Per_Hour depends on Job_Classification this means that relation (5)

has transistive dependency. The dependency diagram for the relation (5) is shown below.

68 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Diagram

Hence relation (5) is sub divided into two relations. Relation (6) and relation (7) as shown
below.

Job(Job_Class, Charge_Per_Hour)-----------------(6)

Emp(Emp_No,Emp_Name,Job_Class)------------(7)

For a practical application it is not sufficient to normalized up to either 2NF or 3NF

The process of normalization is stopped and the final 3NF relations of construction company
as shown below.

Project(Proj_No,Proj_Name)---------------------------------(1)

Assignment(Proj_No, Emp_No, Hours_Billed)------------(2)

Emp(Emp_No,Emp_Name,Job_Classification)------------(3)

Job(Job_Classification, Charge_Per_Hour)----------------(4)

Improving Design:

How to improve the design of the database?

69 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
1. Evaluate primary key Assignment: Each time a new employee is entered into the
employee table, A job class value must be entered. Unfortunately the data entry in the
job class contains an error, that lead to referential of “Database Designer “for the job
class attribute in the employee table will trigger such a violation. Therefore it is better
to add job code attribute in job relation and employee.
Emp(Emp_No,Emp_Name,Job_Code)
Job(Job_Code,Job_Classification,Charge_Per_Hour)
2. Evaluate Naming conversions: In the job relation job classification will be changed to
Job_Description and Charge_Per_Hour will be charged to Job_Charg_Hour. In the
assignment relation Hours_Billed will be changed to Assign_Hours_Billed.
Job(Job_Code,Job_Description,Job_Chg_Hour)
Assignment(Proj_No,Emp_No,Assign_Hours_Billed)
3. Define Attribute Atomicity: An Automatic Attribute is cannot be further sub divided
such an attribute is said to be automaticity. In employee table the attribute Emp_Name
is not a automaticity because it is further sub divided as
Emp_LName,Emp_FName,Emp_Init. These attributes are coded to the employee table.
Emp(Emp_NO,Emp_LName,Emp_FName,Emp_Init,Hire_Data,Gross_Salary,Job_Code)
4. Identify New Attribute: If the employee table used in real world environment several
other attributes will be added. For example Social_Security_Number, Date_of_Joining,
Date_of_Birth,Hire_Date,Gross_Salary,Net_salary etc will be added to improve relation.
Emp(Emp_No,Emp_LName,Job_Code)
Emp(Emp_NO,Emp_LName,Emp_FName,Emp_Init,Hire_Data,Gross_Salary,Job_Code)
5. Identify New Relationship: When we create a new relationship between the table it
will not produce unnecessary duplication. Then we create a new relationship.
6. Define primary Keys: The combination of Emp_No and Proj_No is a primary key in
the Assignment table. For example if we add a assigned hours more than one time for a
particular project then it violets the primary key constraints.
Assignment(Proj_No,Emp_No,Assig_Hour_Billed)
To avoid the violation to add additional attribute Assign_Date to the assignment table.
If we want to add assigned hours for a particular project more than one time in the
same day then it will violates the primary key constraints. The same data entry gives
no problem when Assign_No is used as a primary key in the Assignment relation.
Assignment(Assign_No,Assign_Date,Proj_No,Emp_No,Assig_Hour_Billed)
7. To maintain historical Accuracy: It is assumed that the Job_Chg_Hour change over
time. The changes to each project were build by multi plying the hours worked on the
project in the assignment table by the Job_Chg_Hour in the job table. Those changes
would always show the current change per hour stored in the job table rather than the
job charge hour that was in effect at the time of assignment. Because of that we are
adding an attribute Assign_Chg_Hour.

70 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 8. Evaluate using Derived Attribute:The derived attribute Assign_Charge is added to
the Assignment relation and Assign_charge is updated by multiplying with
Assign_Chg_Hour with the Assign_Hours_Billed. However the derived attribute
Assign_Charge in the Assignment table makes easy to write reports or invoiced.

Boyce code Normal Form(BCNF):

Candidate key:

A key is said to be candidate key if the superkey that does not contain a subset of
attributes ie the key itself a superkey.

These functional dependencies are shown below.

A+B -------------C,D

C ---------- B

The table structure has no partial dependency and there is no transitive dependency. But the
condition C ---B indicates that a nonkey attribute determines the part of key the primary
key and that dependency is not transitive.

Thus the above diagram meets the 3NF but not the BCNF requirements.

To convert the above table structure from 3NF to BCNF, first change the primary key to A+C.
The dependency C---B means that C is in effect a superset of B. The Decomposition
procedures to produce the results shown below.

71 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Example for BCNF:

Each Class_Code identifies a class iniquely. A student contains many classes and earning the
grades respectively. A staff member can teach many classes. But each class is taught by only
one staff member.

72 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Stu_Id+Staff_Id --------Class_Code, Enroll_grade

Class_Code ---------------Staff_Id

The above table contains two candidate keys to violets the BCNF. Now we can eliminate the
one candidate key from the above table.

73 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Fourth Normal Form (4NF):

Consider an employee can have multiple assignment i.e, that employee works as an
volunteer in service organization and worked in different projects which is shown below

The above contains two sets of independent multi valued dependencies(i.e,

Org_Code,Proj_Code).If volunteer-1 and Volunteer_2 two tables are implemented. The two
tables contains null values.

In volunteer-3 table has a primary key but it is composed of all attributes of the table.
When you consider like this it produces many redundancies.To eliminate multi valued
dependency by creating the assignment and service tables as shown below.

In the Assignment table and service table does not contain multi valued dependency

74 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

De Normalization:

Normalization is a very important in database design. Generally the higher normal

forms the mode the relation joined operations required to produce a specific output. A
successful design must also consider end user requirement for fast performance. Therefore
occasionally we expected to de normalize some portions of the database design in order to
meet performance require.

De Normalization produces lower normal forms 3Nf will be converted to 2NF or 2Nf
will be converted to 1NF.Eg: The need for de normalization due to generate evaluation of
faculty report in which each row list the scores of obtaining during the last 4 semester taught.

Faculty Evaluation Report:

instructor Dept. Sem- Mean Sem- Mean Sem- Mean Sem- Mean Last_sem
1 2 3 4 avg

We can generate easy above the report but the problem arises. The data are stored in a
normalized table. In which each row represented a different score for a given faculty in a
given semester.

EVALDATA:

ID Instructor DEPT. Mean Semistor

It is some difficulty to generate faculty evaluation report the normalized table. The other table
FACHLST faculty history table contains the last four semester mean for each faculty .The faculty history table is
a temporary table created from the evaldata as shown below.

Instructor Dept. Sem- Mean Sem- Mean Sem- Mean Sem- Mean Last_sem
1 2 3 4 avg

The FACHIST is a un normalized from table using the table we can generate .The faculty
evaluation report very firstly. After generating the report, the temporary table, FACHIST will
be deleted. We are doing like this, we can increase. The performance of the database

Chapter – 6
75 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Advanced Data Modeling

Advanced Data Model:

The Extended Entity Relationship Model (EERM) sometimes referred to as the

enhanced entity relationship model. The ER Model constructs Entity super types, entity sub
types and entity clustering.

Entity Super types, Entity sub types:

In an Organization contains different types of employee and all the employees are not
having the same attributes. If you create a one table for all employees to store their
information many columns have null values.

For Example the pilot shares certain characteristics with other employee. Such as employee
no, emp_name, emp_address, Employee hire date on the other employees. The pilot
characteristics are not shared by other employee. The pilot characteristics are employee
license and employee rating will generates nulls for employees who are not pilot.

The pilot entity store only the attributes that are unique to pilot, and the employee
entity store attribute that are common to all employees.

We can conclude that pilot is a sub type of employee and employee is a super type of
pilot. An entity super type is a generic type i.e, related to one or more entity.

Specialization Hierarchy:

Entity super types and sub types are organized in a hierarchy which describes the
higher level entity super types and lower level entity sub types.

The following diagram shows specialization hierarchy by an employee super type and three
entity sub types.

76 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 1. Pilot
2. Mechanic
3. Accountant.
The specialization hierarchy reflects one-to-one relationship between super entity
type and sub entity type.

Eg:

1. A pilot sub type is related to one instance of employee super type.

2. A mechanic sub type is related to one instance of employee super type.
3. An Account sub type is related to one instance of employee super type.

Inheritance:

The property of inheritance enables an entity subtype, to inherit the attributes and
relationships of the super type.
77 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
In the above example the employee entity participating in a one-to-many relationship with a
dependent entity through inheritance.

Subtype Discriminator:

A sub type discriminator is the attribute in the super type entity that determines to
which sub type; the super type occurrence is related.

In the above example if the sub type discriminator is emp_type.

If the emp_type has a value of p the super type is related to pilot sub type.

If the emp_type has a value of A the super type is related to Account subtype.

If the emp_type has a value of M the super type is related to mechanic subtype.

Disjoint & Overlapping Constraints:

The Disjoint subtypes are indicated by the letter ‘d’ inside the category shape. In
disjoint the super type entity is related to only one sub entity types.

Eg: An employee who is a pilot can appear only in the pilot sub type, not in any of other sub
types.

The Overlapping subtypes are indicated by the letter’ o’ inside the category shape. In
the overlapping the super type entity is not relate to only one sub entity types.

Eg: An employee may be a professor as well as administrator.

78 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The Administrator and professor overlap the super type entity employee.

Partial or Completeness constraint:

Partial completeness means that not every super type entity is related to a sub type
entity. A single horizontal line under the circle represents a partial constraint O.

Total completeness means that every super type is related to latest one sub type. A double
horizontal line under the circle represents the total completeness constraint.

Specialization and Generalization:

79 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 We can use various approaches to develop entity super types and sub types.

Specialization is the top down process of identifying lower level entity sub type from a higher
level entity super type.

Eg: The specialization is used to identify multiple entity supply (Pilot, mechanic, Accountant)
from the super entity employee.

Generalization is the bottom-up process of identifying higher level entity super types from a
lower level entity sub types.

Eg: The Generalization is used to identify entity super type from the sub type (Pilot,
mechanic, Accountant).

Entity Clustering:

Generally the data modeler will develop an initial ERD containing a few entities. As the
designed approach completion the ERD will contain hundreds of entities and relationships. In
those cases, we can use entity cluster to minimize the number of entities in the ERD.

An entity cluster is a virtual entity type used to represent multiple entities and the
relationship in the ERD.

An entity cluster is formed by combining multiple inter related entities into a single
entity object. An entity cluster is considered virtually in the sense that it is not actually an
entity in the final ERD.

80 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Entity Integrity:

The most important characteristics of an entity is its primary key, which uniquely
identifies each entity instance. The primary key and foreign key works together implement
relationship between the tables in the relational data model.

Natural keys & Primary keys:

The unique identifies is commonly uncounted in the real world. For example class_no
to register for classes, Invoice_no to identify a particular invoice, Account-no., to identify
credit cards and soon. These Examples contains natural keys.

The natural keys class_no, invoice_no, account_no is used to uniquely identify the real
world objects.

81 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 If an entity has a natural identifier, a data modeler uses that natural key as the primary
key of the entity.

Primary key Guidelines:

The primary key main function is to uniquely identity an entity for a given primary key
value the relational model can determine values of all dependent attributes.

The second function is primary key and foreign key implement relationship between
tables or entities.

Characteristics of Primary Key:

 A primary key contains unique values and not accept the null values.
 The primary key should be permanent and unchangeable
 A primary key should have the minimum number of attributes.

When to use composite primary keys:

The composite primary keys are particularly useful in two cases.

1. As Identifier of composite entities.

2. As Identifier of weak entities.

In the first case assume that we have a student entity and class. Entity and the relationship
between these two entities is many to many via enroll entity. The enroll entity contains key
fields of student entity and class entity which is used to identity entity instance in the enroll
entity.

82 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

In the 2nd case a weak entity in a strong relationship with a parent entity is normally used.

Eg: The key field of employee entity is used one of the key filed of dependent entity.

Emp(Emp_no, Emp_Fname,Emp_Lname,email)

Dependent(Emp_no, Depn_ Depn_Fname, Depn_Lname, Depn_Addr)

When to use surrogate primary keys?

These are some instances when a primary key does not exist in the real world object.
(or)
When the existing natural key is not suitable as primary keys.
For Example: Consider the facility that rent for rooms for small parties. The manager of the
facility keep the all the events in the following table formats.

Date Time_start Time_End Room Event_name Party-of

83 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

The above table can be represented as Event entity

EVENT(Date, Time_start, Time_End, Room, Event_name, Party-of)

In the above entity there is no simple natural keys i.e, used as a primary key in the model.

Based on the concept of primary key we suggest one of these options (Date, Time_start,
Room) or (Date, Time_End, Room).

1. When Implementation of data model, the composite primary key in the event entity
makes complexity and also coding.
2. The solution to the problem is to use a numeric single attribute as surrogate primary
key.

EVENT(Date, Time_start, Time_End, Room, Event_name, Party-of)

Unit-3
84 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Unit-III: Interaction with Databases and Construction of Information System:
3.1 Introduction to SQL:
 Data Definition Commands,
 Data Manipulation Commands,
 Select queries,
 Advanced Data Definition Commands,
 Advanced Select queries,
 Virtual Tables,
 Joining Database Tables.
3.2 Advanced SQL:
 Relational Set operators,
 SQL Join Operators,
 Sub queries and correlated queries,
 SQL Functions,
 Oracle Sequences,
 Updatable Views,
 Procedural SQL.
3.3 Database Design:
 The Information System,
 The Systems Development Life Cycle,
 The Database Life Cycle,
 Database Design Strategies,
 Centralized Vs Decentralized design.

Introduction to SQL

85 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

DDL commands:

DDL is abbreviation of Data Definition Language. It is used to create and modify the
structure of database objects in database.

The commands are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, and TRUNCATE.

Create:

Create table <table name>(column name1 data type, column name2 data
type………..column name n data type);

Alter:

Adding New Columns

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE <table_name> ADD (<NewColumnName> <Data_Type>(<size>),......n)

Example:

ALTER TABLE Student ADD (Age number(2), Marks number(3));

The Student table is already exist and then we added two more
columns Age and Marks respectively, by the use of above command.

Dropping a Column from the Table

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE <table_name> DROP COLUMN <column_name>

Example:

ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Age;

This command will drop particular column

Modifying Existing Table

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE <table_name> MODIFY (<column_name> <NewDataType>

(<NewSize>));

Example:

86 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY (Name Varchar2(40));

The Name column already exist in Student table, it was char and size 30, now it is
modified by Varchar2 and size 40.

Restriction on the ALTER TABLE

Using the ALTER TABLE clause the following tasks cannot be performed.

 Change the name of the table

 Change the name of the column

 Decrease the size of a column if table data exists

Rename:

Syntax:

RENAME <OldTableName> TO <NewTableName>

Example:

RENAME <Student> TO <Stu>

Drop:

DROP TABLE <table_name>

Truncate:

TRUNCATE TABLE <Table_name>

DML commands:

DML is abbreviation of Data Manipulation Language. It is used to retrieve, store,

modify, delete, insert and update data in database.

The DML commands are SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

Select:

Select * from <tablename>;

Insert:

Insert into <table name> values (&column name, &column name……&column name);

Note: If we specifying names we have to give single coats to column name.

87 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Update:

Syntax:

Update table-name SET column-name = value where Condition;

Ex:

Update student SET age=18 where id=10;

Delete:

Syntax: delete from <Table-name>

Ex:

Delete from student;

DCL commands:

DCL is abbreviation of Data Control Language. It is used to create roles, permissions,

and referential integrity as well it is used to control access to database by securing it.

GRANT – Gives user’s access privileges to database

REVOKE – Withdraws user’s access privileges to database given with the GRANT command

Grant:

Syntax:

Create user <user-name> identified by <password>;

Grant all privileges to <user-name>

Ex:

Create user ravi identified by bvrice;

Grant all privileges to ravi;

Revoke:

Syntax:

Revoke all privileges from <username>;

Ex:

Revoke all privileges from ravi;

88 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
TCL commands

TCL is abbreviation of Transactional Control Language. It is used to manage different

transactions occurring within a database.

COMMIT – Saves work done in transactions

ROLLBACK – Restores database to original state since the last COMMIT command in
transactions
SAVE POINT- Save point commands is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can
rollback to that point wherever necessary.

Commit:

Syntax:

Commit;

Rollback:

Syntax:

Rollback;

Rollback to <save-point>

Save point:

Syntax:

Savepoint <save point –name>

Ex:

Save point kkkk;

Note: Observe the difference between DROP and DELETE.

Observe the difference between DROP, TRUNCATE and DELETE

Data Types

• CHAR(size)

– Used to store character strings. The size determines number of characters the
cell can hold. The max number is 255 Characters

• VARCHAR(size)/VARCHAR2(size)

– Stores Variable length alphanumeric data. The max is 4000 characters

89 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 • DATE

– Used to represent date and time. The standard format is DD-Mon-YY as in 03-
dec-08. If we want to change date function use appropriate function. Valid date
range is Jan 1,4712 B.C to December 31,4712 A.D.

• NUMBER(p,s)

– Used to store numbers. Number of virtually any magnitude can be stored up to

38 digits of precision.

• LONG

– Used to store variable length character strings containing up to 2 GB

• RAW/ LONG RAW

– Used to store binary data such as digitized picture or images up to 2 GB.

• TIME STAMP

– Used to store year, month, day, hour, minutes and seconds

• ROWID

– Fixed length binary data. Every record in the data base has unique Physical
Address. The format is BBBBBBB.RRRR.FFFFF where BBBBBBB is the block in
database file, RRRR is the row in the block and FFFFF is the database file

• BFILE

– File locator that points to a read-only binary object outside the database. Up to 4
GB.

• BLOB

– Locator for Large Binary objects within the database. Up to 4GB

• CLOB

– Locator for Large Character objects within the database. Up to 4 GB

DATA CONSTRAINTS

• Oracle permits data constraints to be attached to table columns via SQL Syntax

• Once data constraints are part of table column construct, the Oracle database engine
checks the data being entered into a table column against the data constraints.
90 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 • If the data passes this check, it is stored in the table column else it is rejected.

• Both CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE SQL syntax are used to attach constraints

• Once these constraints are attached data must be carefully loaded into the database.

PRIMARY KEY Constraint

• Primary Key is one or more columns in a table used to uniquely identifies a row.

• A single column primary key is called Simple Key.

• A multi column primary key is called Composite Key.

• Primary key will not allow Duplicate values.

• Primary key will not allow Null values.

• One table can combine up to 16 columns in a composite Primary Key

• Syntax for Simple primary key

• <ColumnName> <DataType>(<size>) PRIMARY KEY

• Syntax for Composite primary key

• PRIMARY KEY(<ColumnName1>, <ColumnName2>)

Foreign Key

• It represents relation between table

• It is a column whose values are derived from the primary key or unique key of some
other table or same table also

• Foreign key can be specified on child but not on parent

• Parent record can be deleted provided no child record exists

• Master table cannot be updated if child record exists

• The foreign key columns in the master and child tables must be of same data type

• Rejects a INSERT or UPDATE of values if a corresponding value does not currently

exist in the master table

• Syntax

91 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 • <columnName> <Datatype>(<size>) REFERENCES <TableName>
[(<ColumnName>)] [options];

• Syntax

• Foreign key (<ColumnName> [,<ColumnName>]) REFERENCES <TableName>

[(<ColumnName> ,<ColumnName>)]

Unique

• Unique key will not allow duplicate values

• A table can have more than one unique key

• Unique key permits multiple enteries of NULL values into a column

• Unique key can combine upto 16 columns to from composite unique key

• Syntax for simple Unique key

• <ColumnName> <Datatype>(<size>) UNIQUE

• Syntax for composite Unique key

• UNIQUE(<ColumnName1>, <ColumnName2> )

NULL

• A null value is not equal to zero we set null when the value is unknown

• Null value can be inserted into columns of any data type

• Syntax

– <ColumnName> <datatype>(<size>) NOT NULL;

– Example

– SQL>Create table student(s_no varchar2(10), s_name char(20) NOT NULL,year

date,branch char(3), subject char(10));

– IT does not allow NULL values to be inserted in s_name

CHECK

• Syntax

– <ColumnName> <Datatype>(<size>) CHECK (<Logical Expression>);

92 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 It checks while the values are inserted into the table

Assigment:

SQL>create table sailors(sid number(3) PRIMARY KEY ,sname varchar2(10), rating

number(1) CHECK(rating>=1 and rating<=10),age number(3,1));

Table created

SQL>desc sailors;

NAME NULL? TYPE

SID NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

SNAME VARCHAR2(10)

RATING NUMBER(1)

AGE NUMBER(3,1)

SQL>select * from tab;

SQL>create table boats(bid number(3) PRIMARY KEY ,bname varchar2(10),color

varchar2(10));

Table created

SQL>desc boats;

NAME NULL? TYPE

BID NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

BNAME VARCHAR2(10)

COLOR VARCHAR2(10)

SQL>select * from tab;

SQL>create table reserves(sid number(3),bid number(3),day date,PRIMARY

KEY(sid,bid), FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES sailors(sid), FOREIGN KEY (bid)
REFERENCES boats(bid));

93 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Table created

SQL>desc reserves;

NAME NULL? TYPE

SID NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

BID NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

DAY DATE

SAILORS (Parent) BOATS (Parent)

SID SNAME RATING AGE BID BNAME COLOR

PK PK

RESERVES (Child)

SID BID DAY

FK FK

Composite PK

Insert data into Sailors, Boats and Reserves table in the same order

SQL>select * from sailors;

SID SNAME RATING AGE

22 Dustin 7 45.0

29 Brutus 1 33.0
94 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 31 Lubber 8 55.5

32 Andy 8 25.5

58 Rusty 10 35.0

64 Horatio 7 35.0

71 Zobra 10 16.0

74 Horatio 9 35.0

85 Art 3 25.5

95 Bob 3 63.5

SQL> select * from boats;

BID BNAME COLOR

101 Interlake Blue

102 Interlake red

103 Clipper Green

104 Marine red

SQL> select * from reserves;

SID BID DAY

22 101 10-10-98

95 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 22 102 10-10-98

22 103 10-10-98

22 104 10-7-98

31 102 11-10-98

31 103 11-06-98

31 104 11-12-98

64 101 9-5-98

64 102 9-8-98

74 103 9-8-98

PRIMARY Key Field:

We cannot insert NULL Values or Duplicate values in the fields

sid in Sailors

BID in Boats

SID,BID in reserves

FOREIGN KEY FIELD:

The following restrictions are followed for fields which are declared as foreign key

INSERT UPDATE DELETE

PARENT No Restriction No Restriction Restriction

CHILD Restriction No Restriction No Restriction

To insert records into sailors and boats there is no restriction , but to insert record into
reserves we must have the particular record with sid and bid values in sailors and boats
tables.

SQL>insert into reserves values(33,101,’11-02-98’);

96 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Error: Parent record not found

To update a record in sailors whose value is referenced in reserves will not be

permited

SQL>update sailors set sid=33 where sid=22;

Error: Child record found

To update a record in reserves we will have the restriction that only the updating are
allowed up to the values in sailors table

SQL>update reserves set sid=33 where sid=22;

Error: Parent record not found

Deletion in reserves has no restriction but to delete a record from sailors and boats the
records must not have references in child.

SQL>delete from sailors;

Error: Child record found

SQL>delete from boats;

Error: Child record found

We can allow the updating and deleting in parent and child by using the following
syntax

SQL>create table reserves(sid number(3),bid number(3),day date,

PRIMARY KEY(sid,bid),

FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES sailors(sid) on DELETE CASCADE,

FOREIGN KEY (bid) REFERENCES boats(bid) on UPDATE CASCADE);

This syntax will carry updating and deleting in parent to child without above
restrictions.

Advanced Data Definition Commands:

Changing a column’s data type:

By using the following syntax we can change the column’s data type of a particular
table.
97 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Note: Some RDBMS, such as Oracle, do not let you change data types unless the column
to be changed is empty.

Syntax:

Alter table <tablename> modify(column name datatype);

Changing a column’s data characteristics:

If you want to increase the width of the column data type size, use the following
syntax.

Syntax:

Alter table <tablename> modify(column name datatype(size));

Ex:

98 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Adding a column:

If you want to add new column to the existing table, use the following syntax;

Syntax:

Alter table <tablename>ADD (column name datatype);

Ex:

Dropping a column:

If you want to delete a column to the existing table, use the following syntax;

Syntax:

Alter table <tablename>drop column column_name);

Ex:

99 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Coping parts of tables:

Adding primary and foreign key designations:

Deleting a table from the database:

Advanced select queries:

1. Order by

2. Group by

3. Having by

Order by Clause:

Syntax:

Select column-list from table-list [ where condition] [order by column-list [ASC/DESC];

SQL ORDER BY

The ORDER BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to sort results either in ascending
or descending order. Oracle sorts query results in ascending order by default.

Syntax for using SQL ORDER BY clause to sort data is:

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name [WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1 [, column2, .. columnN] [DESC]];

database table "employee";

100 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

For Example: If you want to sort the employee table by salary of the employee, the sql query
would be.

SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY salary;

The output would be like:

The query first sorts the result according to salary and then displays it.

You can also use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause.

If you want to sort the employee table by the name and salary, the query would be
like.,

SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY name, salary;

The output would be like:

NOTE: The columns specified in ORDER BY clause should be one of the columns
selected in the SELECT column list.

You can represent the columns in the ORDER BY clause by specifying the position of a
column in the SELECT list, instead of writing the column name.

The above query can also be written as given below,

SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY 1, 2;

101 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 By default, the ORDER BY Clause sorts data in ascending order. If you want to sort the
data in descending order, you must explicitly specify it as shown below.

SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY name, salary DESC;

The above query sorts only the column 'salary' in descending order and the column
'name' by ascending order.

If you want to select both name and salary in descending order, the query would be as
given below.

SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY name DESC, salary DESC;

How to use expressions in the ORDER BY Clause?

Expressions in the ORDER BY clause of a SELECT statement.

For example: If you want to display employee name, current salary, and a 20% increase in
the salary for only those employees for whom the percentage increase in salary is greater
than 30000 and in descending order of the increased price, the SELECT statement can be
written as shown below

SELECT name, salary, salary*1.2 AS new_salary FROM employee

WHERE salary*1.2 > 30000
ORDER BY new_salary DESC;

The output for the above query is as follows.

102 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

GROUP BY CLAUSE :

Using a group function one can group entire table data and provide a single result,
however you can use the GROUP BY clause to break the result set into logical groupings and
get a result for each group.

SQL GROUP BY Clause

The SQL GROUP BY Clause is used along with the group functions to retrieve data
grouped according to one or more columns.

Syntax:

SELECT column-name FROM table-name GROUP BY column name;

For Example: If you want to know the total amount of salary spent on each department, the
query would be:

SELECT dept, SUM (salary) FROM employee GROUP BY dept;

The output would be like:

NOTE: The group by clause should contain all the columns in the select list expect those
used along with the group functions.

Ex: SELECT location, dept, SUM (salary) FROM employee GROUP BY location, dept;

The output would be like:

103 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Having:

SQL HAVING Clause

Having clause is used to filter data based on the group functions. This is similar to
WHERE condition but is used with group functions. Group functions cannot be used in
WHERE Clause but can be used in HAVING clause.

Syntax:

SELECT <column_list> FROM < table name > WHERE <condition> GROUP BY <columns>
[HAVING] <condition>;

SQL HAVING Clause Example

If you want to select the department that has total salary paid for its employees more
than 25000, the sql query would be like;

SELECT dept, SUM (salary) FROM employee GROUP BY dept

HAVING SUM (salary) > 25000

The output would be like:

When WHERE, GROUP BY and HAVING clauses are used together in a SELECT
statement, the WHERE clause is processed first, then the rows that are returned after the
WHERE clause is executed are grouped based on the GROUP BY clause.

Finally, any conditions on the group functions in the HAVING clauses are applied to the
grouped rows before the final output is displayed.

104 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Virtual Tables:

Views:

In the SQL language, a view is a representation of one or more tables. A view can be
used to hide the complexity of relationships between tables or to provide security for
sensitive data in tables. In the following example, a limited view of the emp table is created.
When a view is defined, a SQL statement is associated with the view name. Whenever the
view is accessed, the SQL statement will be executed.

SQL> create table emp(empno number(5),ename varchar2(10),salary

number(5),desg varchar2(10),dno number(3));

Table Created

SQL> insert into emp values(101,’abc’,1000,’acc’,10);

1 row created

Note : Insert the records in EMP likewise

SQL> Select * from emp;

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DESG DNO

101 abc 1000 acc 10

102 def 2000 clk 10

103 dsa 3000 gar 20

104 ewd 4000 acc 10

105 ewf 5000 clk 20

In the following example, the view emp_1 is created as a limited number of columns
(Empno,Ename,salary) and limited set of data ( WHERE salary > 3000 ) from the emp table.

SQL> CREATE VIEW emp_1 AS SELECT Empno, Ename, salary

FROM emp WHERE salary > 3000;

View created.

Once the view is created, it can be queried with a SELECT statement as if it were a
table.

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp_1 ;

105 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 EMPNO ENAME SALARY

104 ewd 4000

105 ewf 5000

Views can be dropped in a similar fashion to tables. The DROP VIEW command
provides this facility. In the following example, the view just created is dropped.

SQL> DROP VIEW emp_1;

View dropped.

View can be again created with the same name emp_1 as a limited number of columns
(Empno,Ename,salary,dno) and limited set of data ( WHERE dno=10 ) from the emp table.

SQL> CREATE VIEW emp_1 AS SELECT Empno, Ename, salary, dno FROM emp WHERE
dno=10;

View created.

Once the view is created, it can be queried with a SELECT statement as if it were a
table.

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp_1 ;

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DNO

101 abc 1000 10

102 def 2000 10

104 ewd 4000 10

SQL> Insert into emp_1 values (106,’htg’,4500,10);

1 row created

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp_1 ;

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DNO

106 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 101 abc 1000 10

102 def 2000 10

104 ewd 4000 10

106 htg 4500 10

Do the same with EMP table

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp ;

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DESG DNO

101 abc 1000 acc 10

102 def 2000 clk 10

103 dsa 3000 gar 20

104 ewd 4000 acc 10

105 ewf 5000 clk 20

106 htg 4500 10

The same record will be inserted into base table also and Vice versa

SQL> Insert into emp_1 values (107,’wqa’,3500,20);

1 row created

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp_1 ;

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DNO

101 abc 1000 10

102 def 2000 10

104 ewd 4000 10

107 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 106 htg 4500 10

The record will not be visible in view because the record does not satisfy the WHERE
dn0=10 condition, but it will be inserted in base table EMP

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp ;

EMPNO ENAME SALARY DESG DNO

101 abc 1000 acc 10

102 def 2000 clk 10

103 dsa 3000 gar 20

104 ewd 4000 acc 10

105 ewf 5000 clk 20

106 htg 4500 10

107 wqa 3500 20

Actually this record must not be accepted while inserted in view EMP_1 because it
does not hold the condition so we can enable this condition by including WITH CHECK
OPTION in View creation.

SQL> Drop view emp_1;

View droped.

SQL> CREATE VIEW emp_1 AS SELECT Empno, Ename, salary, dno FROM emp WHERE
dno=10 WITH CHECK OPTION;

View created.

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp_1 ;

108 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 EMPNO ENAME SALARY DNO

101 abc 1000 10

102 def 2000 10

104 ewd 4000 10

106 htg 4500 10

SQL> Insert into emp_1 values (108,’okl’,7500,20);

Error: Record not inserted because CHECK constraint violated.

We can make the view read only by the following rules

1) Key fields must not be included in view definition

2) NOT NULL fields must not be included in view definition

SQL> alter table emp add PRIMARY KEY(empno);

Table altered

SQL> CREATE VIEW emp_2 AS SELECT Ename, salary, dno FROM emp WHERE dno=10 WITH
CHECK OPTION;

View created.

SQL> SELECT * FROM emp_2 ;

ENAME SALARY DNO

abc 1000 10

def 2000 10

ewd 4000 10

htg 4500 10

SQL> Insert into emp_2 values (’okl’,7500,10);

109 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Error: NULL values cannot inserted in PRIMARY KEY field EMP.EMPNO

This view cannot accept insertion because when it inserts a record it is trying to insert
NULL into primary key field of Base table EMP.

Sub Queries:

A Sub query or Inner query or Nested query is a query within another SQL query and
embedded within the WHERE clause.

A sub query is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to
further restrict the data to be retrieved.

Sub queries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements
along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN etc.

There are a few rules that sub queries must follow:

 Sub queries must be enclosed within parentheses.

 A sub query can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple columns
are in the main query for the sub query to compare its selected columns.

 An ORDER BY cannot be used in a sub query, although the main query can use an
ORDER BY. The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same function as the ORDER BY
in a sub query.

 Sub queries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value
operators, such as the IN operator.

 The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a BLOB,
ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.

 A sub query cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.

 The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a sub query; however, the BETWEEN
operator can be used within the sub query.

Sub queries with the SELECT Statement:

Sub queries are most frequently used with the SELECT statement. The basic syntax is
as follows:

Sub query Example:

110 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

Now, let us check following subquery with SELECT statement:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY > 4500) ;

This would produce the following result:

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

Sub queries with the INSERT Statement:

Sub queries also can be used with INSERT statements. The INSERT statement uses the
data returned from the subquery to insert into another table. The selected data in the
subquery can be modified with any of the character, date or number functions.

The basic syntax is as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name [ (column1 [, column2 ]) ] SELECT [ *|column1 [, olumn2] FROM

table1 [, table2 ] [ WHERE VALUE OPERATOR ]

Example:

111 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Consider a table CUSTOMERS_BKP with similar structure as CUSTOMERS table. Now to
copy complete CUSTOMERS table into CUSTOMERS_BKP, following is the syntax:

SQL> INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS_BKP

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID

FROM CUSTOMERS) ;

Sub queries with the UPDATE Statement:

The sub query can be used in conjunction with the UPDATE statement. Either single or
multiple columns in a table can be updated when using a sub query with the UPDATE
statement.

The basic syntax is as follows:

UPDATE table SET column_name = new_value [ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]

(SELECT COLUMN_NAME FROM TABLE_NAME) [ WHERE) ]

Example:

Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS

table.

Following example updates SALARY by 0.25 times in CUSTOMERS table for all the
customers whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25 WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE
FROM CUSTOMERS_BK WHERE AGE >= 27 );

This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have the following
records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 125.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

112 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 | 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 2125.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

Sub queries with the DELETE Statement:

The sub query can be used in conjunction with the DELETE statement like with any
other statements mentioned above.

The basic syntax is as follows:

DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME [ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ] (SELECT COLUMN_NAME

FROM TABLE_NAME) [ WHERE) ]

Example:

Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS

table.

Following example deletes records from CUSTOMERS table for all the customers
whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE > 27 );

This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have the following
records:

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

113 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Correlated Subquery

A query is called correlated subquery when both the inner query and the outer query
are interdependent. For every row processed by the inner query, the outer query is processed
as well. The inner query depends on the outer query before it can be processed.

SELECT p.product_name FROM product P WHERE p.product_id = (SELECT

o.product_id FROM order_items o WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id);

NOTE:
1) You can nest as many queries you want but it is recommended not to nest more than 16
Sub queries in oracle.
2) If a subquery is not dependent on the outer query it is called a non-correlated subquery.

In a SQL database query, a correlated subquery (also known as a synchronized

subquery) is a subquery (a query nested inside another query) that uses values from outer
query. The subquery is evaluated once for each row processed by the outer query

Here is an example for a typical correlated subquery. In this example we are finding
the list of all employees whose salary is above average for their departments.

SELECT employee_number, name FROM employees AS Bob WHERE salary > (

SELECT AVG(salary)FROM employees WHERE department = Bob.department);

In the above query the outer query is

SELECT employee_number, name FROM employees AS Bob WHERE salary > ... and
the inner query (the correlated subquery) is

SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = Bob.department

In the above nested query the inner query has to be re-executed for each employee.
Correlated Sub queries may appear elsewhere besides the WHERE clause; for example, this
query uses a correlated subquery in the SELECT clause to print the entire list of employees
alongside the average salary for each employee's department. Again, because the subquery is
correlated with a column of the outer query, it must be re-executed for each row of the result.

SELECT employee_number, name, (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees WHERE

department = Bob.department) AS department_average FROM employees AS Bob;

SQL FUNCTIONS:

Number functions:

114 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Define, syntax and an example with output for: ABS(number), CEIL(number),
FLOOR(number), MOD(number, divisor), POWER(number, power), SIGN(number),
ROUND(number, precision), SQRT(number), TRUNC(number, precision)

Define, syntax and an example with output for:

ABS(number)

Returns the absolute positive value of an expression. Syntax:

ABS(expression)

Example:

SELECT ABS(-1.0), ABS(0.0), ABS(1.0) Output:

1.0 .0 1.0

CEIL(number)

Returns the smallest integer greater than, or equal to, the specified numeric expression.

Syntax:

CEILING(expression)

Example:

SELECT CEILING($223.45), CEILING($-223.45), CEILING($0.0) Output:

224.00 -223.00 0.00

FLOOR(number)

Returns the largest integer less than, or equal to, the specified numeric expression. Syntax:

FLOOR(expression)

Example:

SELECT FLOOR($223.45), CEILING($-223.45), CEILING($0.0) Output:

223.0 -224.000.00

MOD(number, divisor)

Returns the remainder of the division from 2 integer values.

Syntax:

115 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

MOD(dividend, divisor) Example:

SELECT MOD(20,3) Output:

POWER(number, power)

Returns the exponential value for the numeric expression. Syntax:

POWER(number, power) Example:

SELECT POWER(2.0, 3.0) Output:

8.0

SIGN(number)

Returns the sign i.e. positive or negative value for the numeric expression. It returns -1 for
negative expressions, a value of 0 for zero

Syntax:

SIGN(number)

Example: SELECT SIGN(4) Output:

ROUND(number, precision)

Returns the numeric value rounded off to the next value specified.

Syntax:

ROUND(number, number of places)

Example:

SELECT ROUND(1.3456, 2)

SQRT(number)

Returns the square root value of the expression.

Syntax:

SQRT(number)

Example:
116 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
SELECT SQRT(4.0)

Output:

2.0

TRUNC(number, precision)

Returns a numeric value that truncate to the specific places Syntax:

TRUNCATE(number,places)

Example:

SELECT TRUNCATE(1.3456, 2) Output:

1.34

String functions:

single-row character munipulation functions

1. CONCAT(string1, string2)

2. INITCAP(string)

3. LENGTH(string)

4. LPAD(string, #,padding_char)

5. RPAD(string, #,padding_char)

6. LTRIM(string,searchString)

7. RTRIM(string,searchString)

8. REPLACE(string,searchString,replacement)

9. SUBSTR(string,start,length)

10. UPPER(string)

11. LOWER(string)

CONCAT(string1, string2)

117 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Combines result from several different fields.

Syntax:

CONCAT(string1, string2)

Example:

SELECT CONCAT(first_name,last_name) FROM employee WHERE first_name LIKE ‘b%’

Output:

Brad cooper

INITCAP(string)

Returns a string with each word's first character in uppercase and the rest in lowercase.

Syntax:

INITCAP(character-expression)

Example:

select initcap (dept) from employee;

Output:

Analyst

LENGTH(string)

Returns the length of the string. Also called as LEN()in sql server.

Syntax:

LENGTH(string)

Example:

select LENGTH (emp_name) from employee Where emp_id=’1’

Output:

LPAD(string, #,padding_char)

118 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Used to pad the string to left to length n characters.string_pad parameter is optional. If not
specified, string will be padded spaces to the left-side of string.

Syntax:

lpad ('string', n [, 'string_pad')

Example: lpad('tech', 7);

Output:

‘ tech’

RPAD(string, #,padding_char)

Used to pad the string to right to length n characters.string_pad parameter is optional. If not
specified, string will be padded spaces to the right-side of string.

syntax:

rpad ('string', n [, 'string_pad')

Example: rpad('tech', 7);

Output:

‘tech ’

LTRIM(string,searchString)

Used to remove all white spaces from the beginning of the string.

Syntax:

Ltrim(string)

Example:

SELECT LTRIM(' Sample ');

Output:

‘sample ’

RTRIM(string,searchString)

Used to remove all white spaces at the end of the string.

Syntax:

119 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

rtrim(string)

Example:

SELECT rTRIM(' Sample ');

Output:

‘ sample’

REPLACE(string,searchString,replacement)

Used to replace the string1, having string2 with string3.

Syntax:

REPLACE(string1, string2, string3)

Example:

SELECT REPLACE(branch, 'st', 'saint') FROM company;

SUBSTR(string,start,length)

Displays the string Starting with the th character in string and select the next characters.

Syntax:

SUBSTR(str,pos,len):

Example:

SELECT SUBSTR(‘San Diego,2,4);

Output:

‘an D’

UPPER(string)

Returns a string in lowercase converted to uppercase

Syntax:

UPPER(string):

Example:

120 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

SELECT UPPER(‘sAnd’);

Output:

SAND

LOWER(string)

Returns a string in uppercase converted to lowercase

Syntax:

LOWER(string):

Example:

SELECT LOWER(‘sANd’);

Output: sand

Date functions:

single-row date functions

SYSDATE

ADD_MONTHS(Date, months_to_add)

LAST_DAY(Date)

MONTHS_BETWEEN(Date1, Date2)

SYSDATE

Returns the current system date of the database system. Syntax:

SYSDATE

Example:

SELECT SYSDATE FROM db_company Output:

28-May-2010

ADD_MONTHS(Date, months_to_add)

Returns the month by adding n months to the month of the date specified. Syntax:

add_months( date1, n )

121 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Example: add_months('01-Aug-03', 3)

Output: 01-Nov-03

LAST_DAY(Date)

Returns the last day of the date specified.

Syntax:

LAST_DAY(date1)

Example:

last_day(to_date('2003/03/15', 'yyyy/mm/dd'))

Output:

Mar 31, 2003

MONTHS_BETWEEN(Date1, Date2)

Returns the number of months between date1 and date2

Syntax:

MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1,date2)

Example:

months_between (to_date ('2003/01/01', 'yyyy/mm/dd'), to_date ('2003/03/01',

'yyyy/mm/dd'))

output:

GROUP FUNCTIONS

1. Sum()
2. Avg ()
3. Max ()
4. Min ()
5. Count()
Oracle sequences:

122 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

SEQUENCE:

A sequence is a database object, which can generate unique, sequential integer values.
It can be used to automatically generate primary key or unique key values. A sequence can be
either in an ascending or descending order.

Syntax: Create sequence <seq_name> [increment bty n] [start with n] [maxvalue n]

[minvalue n] [cycle/nocycle] [cache/nocache];

By defalult the sequence starts with 1, increments by 1 with minvalue of 1 and with
nocycle, nocache.

Cache option pre-alloocates a set of sequence numbers and retains them in memory
for faster access.

Ex: SQL> create sequence s;

SQL> create sequence s increment by 10 start with 100 minvalue 5 maxvalue 200
cycle cache 20;

USING SEQUENCE

SQL> create table student(no number(2),name varchar(10));

SQL> insert into student values(s.nextval, ‗saketh‘);

Initially currval is not defined and nextval is starting value.

After that nextval and currval are always equal.

CREATING ALPHA-NUMERIC SEQUENCE

SQL> create sequence s start with 111234;

SQL> Insert into student values (s.nextval || translate

(s.nextval,‘1234567890‘,‘abcdefghij‘));

ALTERING SEQUENCE

We can alter the sequence to perform the following.

Set or eliminate minvalue or maxvalue.

Change the increment value.

Change the number of cached sequence numbers.

Ex: SQL> alter sequence s minvalue 5;

123 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 SQL> alter sequence s increment by 2;

SQL> alter sequence s cache 10;

DROPPING SEQUENCE

SQL> drop sequence s;

Procedural SQL:

Procedures:

Functions: These subprograms return a single value, mainly used to compute and
return a value.

Procedures: These subprograms do not return a value directly, mainly used to

perform an action.

Procedures: These subprograms do not return a value directly, mainly used to

perform an action.

Parts of a PL/SQL Subprogram

Declarative Part:

It is an optional part. However, the declarative part for a subprogram does not start
with the DECLARE keyword. It contains declarations of types, cursors, constants, variables,
exceptions, and nested subprograms. These items are local to the subprogram and cease to
exist when the subprogram completes execution.

Executable Part:

This is a mandatory part and contains statements that perform the designated action.

Exception-handling:

This is again an optional part. It contains the code that handles run-time errors.

Syntax for creating procedures:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]

{IS | AS}

BEGIN

< procedure_body >

124 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 END procedure_name;

Procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.

[OR REPLACE] option allows modifying an existing procedure.

The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.

IN represents that value will be passed from outside and

OUT represents that this parameter will be used to return a value outside of the procedure.

IN OUT

An IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and returns an updated value to
the caller.

Procedure-body contains the executable part.

The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone procedure.

A sample program to create procedure:

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE greetings

AS

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line ('Hello World!');

END;

When above code is executed using SQL prompt, it will produce the following result

Procedure created.

To execute the above code:

Syntax:

Execute <procedure_name:>

For the above program…

Execute greetings.

Then the result ‘hello world’ will be displayed.

125 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Example program-2:

This program finds the minimum of two values, here procedure takes two numbers
using IN mode and returns their minimum using OUT parameters

DECLARE

a number;

b number;

c number;

PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS

BEGIN

IF x < y THEN

z:= x;

ELSE

z:= y;

END IF;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

126 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 b:= 45;

findMin(a, b, c);

dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' || c);

END;

o/p:

Minimum of(23,45): 23.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Deleting a Standalone Procedure

Syntax:

127 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 DROP PROCEDURE <procedure-name>

So you can drop greetings procedure by using the following statement:

BEGIN

DROP PROCEDURE greetings;

END;

Example-3

DECLARE

a number;

PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS

BEGIN

x := x * x;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

squareNum(a);

dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a);

END;

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following result:

Square of (23): 529

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Functions:

A PL/SQL function is same as a procedure except that it returns a value.

128 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Creating a Function

A standalone function is created using the CREATE FUNCTION statement. The

simplified syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement is as follows:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]

RETURN return_datatype

{IS | AS}

BEGIN

< function_body >

END [function_name];

Where,

 Function-name specifies the name of the function.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows modifying an existing function.

 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.

 IN represents that value will be passed from outside and OUT represents that this
parameter will be used to return a value outside of the procedure.

 The function must contain a return statement.

 RETURN clause specifies that data type you are going to return from the function.

 Function-body contains the executable part.

 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone function.

Example-1

129 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 The following example illustrates creating and calling a standalone function. This
function returns the total number of CUSTOMERS in the customers table. We will use the
CUSTOMERS table.

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan| 25 | Delhi| 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota| 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik| 27 | Bhopal| 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP| 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalCustomers

RETURN number IS

total number(2) := 0;

BEGIN

SELECT count(*) into total

FROM customers;

RETURN total;

END;

When above code is executed using SQL prompt, it will produce the following result:

Function created.

Calling a Function:

130 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 While creating a function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To use a
function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined task. When a program calls
a function, program control is transferred to the called function.

A called function performs defined task and when its return statement is executed or
when it last end statement is reached, it returns program control back to the main program.

To call a function you simply need to pass the required parameters along with function
name and if function returns a value then you can store returned value. Following program
calls the function totalCustomers from an anonymous block:

DECLARE

c number(2);

BEGIN

c := totalCustomers();

dbms_output.put_line ('Total no. of Customers: ' || c);

END;

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following result:

Total no. of Customers: 6

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Recursive Functions:

131 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 We have seen that a program or subprogram may call another subprogram. When a
subprogram calls itself, it is referred to as a recursive call and the process is known as
recursion.

To illustrate the concept, let us calculate the factorial of a number. Factorial of a

number n is defined as:

n! = n*(n-1)!

= n*(n-1)*(n-2)!

...

= n*(n-1)*(n-2)*(n-3)... 1

The following program calculates the factorial of a given number by calling itself
recursively:

DECLARE

num number;

factorial number;

FUNCTION fact(x number)

RETURN number

IS

f number;

BEGIN

IF x=0 THEN

f := 1;

ELSE

f := x * fact(x-1);

END IF;

RETURN f;

END;

BEGIN

132 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 num:= 6;

factorial := fact(num);

dbms_output.put_line(' Factorial '|| num || ' is ' || factorial);

END;

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following result:

Factorial 6 is 720

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Cursor:

Oracle creates a memory area, known as context area, for processing an SQL
statement, which contains all information needed for processing the statement, for example,
number of rows processed, etc.

A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL controls the context area through a
cursor.

A cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement. The set of rows
the cursor holds is referred to as the active set.

You can name a cursor so that it could be referred to in a program to fetch and process
the rows returned by the SQL statement, one at a time.

There are two types of cursors:

1. Implicit cursors

133 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 2. Explicit cursors

Implicit Cursors:

Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle whenever an SQL statement is

executed, when there is no explicit cursor for the statement. Programmers cannot control the
implicit cursors and the information in it.

Whenever a DML statement (INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) is issued, an implicit

cursor is associated with this statement. For INSERT operations, the cursor holds the data
that needs to be inserted. For UPDATE and DELETE operations, the cursor identifies the rows
that would be affected.

In PL/SQL, you can refer to the most recent implicit cursor as the SQL cursor, which
always has the attributes like %FOUND, %ISOPEN, %NOTFOUND, and %ROWCOUNT.

The SQL cursor has additional attributes, %BULK_ROWCOUNT and

%BULK_EXCEPTIONS, designed for use with the FORALL statement. The following table
provides the description of the most used attributes:

Attribute Description

%FOUND Returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE,

or DELETE statement affected one or more
rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned
one or morerows. Otherwise, it returns
FALSE.

%NOTFOUND

The logical opposite of %FOUND. It

returns TRUE if an INSERT,

UPDATE, or DELETE statement

affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO

statement returned no rows.

134 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Otherwise, it returns FALSE.

%ISOPEN Always returns FALSE for implicit

cursors, because Oracle closes the

SQL cursor automatically after

executing its associated SQL statement.

%ROWCOUNT Returns the number of rows affected

by an INSERT, UPDATE, or

DELETE statement, or returned by a

SELECT INTO statement

Any SQL cursor attribute will be accessed as sql%attribute_name as shown below in

the example.

Example:

We will be using the CUSTOMERS table we had created and used in the previous
chapters.

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan| 25 | Delhi| 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota| 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik| 27 | Bhopal| 8500.00 |

135 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 | 6 | Komal| 22 | MP| 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following program would update the table and increase salary of each customer by
500 and use the SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute to determine the number of rows affected:

DECLARE

total_rows number(2);

BEGIN

UPDATE customers

SET salary = salary + 500;

IF sql%notfound THEN

dbms_output.put_line('no customers selected');

ELSIF sql%found THEN

total_rows := sql%rowcount;

dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers selected ');

END IF;

END;

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following result:

6 customers selected

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

136 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 If you check the records in customers table, you will find that the rows have been
updated:

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2500.00 |

| 2 | Khilan| 25 | Delhi| 2000.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota| 2500.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 7000.00 |

137 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 | 5 | Hardik| 27 | Bhopal| 9000.00 |

| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP| 5000.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Explicit Cursors:

Explicit cursors are programmer defined cursors for gaining more control over the
context area.

An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It
is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row.

The syntax for creating an explicit cursor is CURSOR cursor_name is select_statement;

Working with an explicit cursor involves four steps:

 Declaring the cursor for initializing in the memory

 Opening the cursor for allocating memory

 Fetching the cursor for retrieving data

 Closing the cursor to release allocated memory

 Declaring the Cursor

Declaring the cursor defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT
statement.

For example:

CURSOR c_customers IS

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

138 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Opening the Cursor

Opening the cursor allocates memory for the cursor and makes it ready for fetching
the rows returned by the SQL statement into it. For example, we will open above-defined
cursor as follows:

OPEN c_customers;

Fetching the Cursor:

Fetching the cursor involves accessing one row at a time. For example we will fetch
rows from the above-opened cursor as follows:

FETCH c_customers INTO c_id, c_name, c_addr;

Closing the Cursor:

Closing the cursor means releasing the allocated memory. For example, we will close
above- opened cursor as follows:

CLOSE c_customers;

Example:

Following is a complete example to illustrate the concepts of explicit cursors:

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type;

c_name customers.name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

CURSOR c_customers is

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

BEGIN

OPEN c_customers;

LOOP

FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;

dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);

EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;

139 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 END LOOP;

CLOSE c_customers;

END;

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following result:

1 Ramesh Ahmedabad

2 Khilan Delhi

3 kaushik Kota

4 Chaitali Mumbai

5 Hardik Bhopal

6 Komal MP

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Triggers:

Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when some
events occur. Triggers are, in fact, written to be executed in response to any of the following
events:
140 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
  A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE).

 A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).

 A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).

Triggers could be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event
is associated.

Benefits of Triggers

Triggers can be written for the following purposes:

 Generating some derived column values automatically

 Enforcing referential integrity

 Event logging and storing information on table access

 Auditing

 Synchronous replication of tables

 Imposing security authorizations

 Preventing invalid transactions

Creating Triggers

The syntax for creating a trigger is:

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }

{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}

[OF col_name]

ON table_name

[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]

[FOR EACH ROW]

WHEN (condition)

DECLARE

Declaration-statements
141 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 BEGIN

Executable-statements

EXCEPTION

Exception-handling-statements

END;

Where,

 CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: Creates or replaces an existing trigger

with the trigger_name.

 {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF}: This specifies when the trigger would be executed.
The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.

 {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}: This specifies the DML operation.

[OF col_name]: This specifies the column name that would be updated.

 [ON table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.

 [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]: This allows you to refer new and old values for
various DML statements, like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

 [FOR EACH ROW]: This specifies a row level trigger, i.e., the trigger would be executed
foreach row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once when the SQL
statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.

 WHEN (condition): This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would fire.
This clause is valid only for row level triggers.

Example:

To start with, we will be using the CUSTOMERS table.

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

142 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 | 2 | Khilan| 25 | Delhi| 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota| 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik| 27 | Bhopal| 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP| 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following program creates a row level trigger for the customers table that would
fire for INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE operations performed on the CUSTOMERS table.

This trigger will display the salary difference between the old values and new values:

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers

FOR EACH ROW

WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)

DECLARE

sal_diff number;

BEGIN

sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;

dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);

dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);

dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);

END;

When the above code is executed at SQL prompt, it produces the following result:

Trigger created.

143 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Here following two points are important and should be noted carefully:

OLD and NEW references are not available for table level triggers, rather you can use
them for record level triggers.

If you want to query the table in the same trigger, then you should use the AFTER
keyword, because triggers can query the table or change it again only after the initial changes
are applied and the table is back in a consistent state.

Above trigger has been written in such a way that it will fire before any DELETE or
INSERT or UPDATE operation on the table, but you can write your trigger on a single or
multiple operations, for example BEFORE DELETE, which will fire whenever a record will be
deleted using DELETE operation on the table.

Triggering a Trigger:

Let us perform some DML operations on the CUSTOMERS table. Here is one INSERT
statement, which will create a new record in the table:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (7, 'Kriti', 22, 'HP', 7500.00 );

When a record is created in CUSTOMERS table, above

trigger display_salary_changes will be fired and it will display the following result:
144 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Old salary:

New salary: 7500

Salary difference:

Because this is a new record so old salary is not available and above result is coming as
null.

Now, let us perform one more DML operation on the CUSTOMERS table. Here is one
UPDATE statement, which will update an existing record in the table:

UPDATE customers

SET salary = salary + 500

WHERE id = 2;

When a record is updated in CUSTOMERS table, above trigger display_salary_changes will be

fired and it will display the following result:

Old salary: 1500

New salary: 2000

Salary difference: 500

145 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Unit-IV: Transaction Management in DBMS Environment.
Transaction Management and Concurrency Control:
 What is transaction,
 Concurrency control,
 Concurrency control with locking Methods,
 Concurrency control with time stamping methods,
 Concurrency control with optimistic methods,
 Database recovery management.
Distributed Database Management Systems:
 The evolution of Distributed Database Management Systems,
 DDBMS advantages and Disadvantages,
 Distribution Processing and Distribution Databases,
 Characteristics of Distributed database management systems,
 DDBMS Components,
 Levels of Data and Process distribution,
 Distributed database Transparency Features,
 Distributed Transparency,

146 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

  Transaction Transparency,
 Performance Transparency and Query Optimization,
 Distributed Database Design,
 Client Server VS DDBMS.

Chapter-10

Transaction Control and Concurrency Control

Transaction:

A Transaction is a series of actions to be performed on the database such that either all
actions are performed or none.

147 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Suppose that we sell a product to a customer, our sales transaction consists of at least
the following parts.

1. We must write a new customer invoice.

2. We must reduce the quantity on hand in the product entities.
3. We must update the accounts transaction.
4. We must update the customer balance.

In database terms a transaction is any action that read from and/or writes to a
database. A transaction may consists of a single SQL statement or a series of related update
statements or insert statements or combination of select, update and insert statements.

1. A Transaction is logical units of work that must entirely complete or entirely aborted
no intermediate states are accepted. All of the SQL statements in a transaction must be
completed successfully. If any of the SQL statements fail the entire transaction is roll
back.
2. A successful transaction changes the database one consistent state to another. A
consistent database state is one in which all data integrity constraints are satisfied.

148 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 3. Each database request generates several I/O operations that reads from or writes to
physical storage medium.

Transaction Properties

The Transaction has the following properties.

 Atomicity.
 Consistency.
 Isolation.
 Durability.

Atomicity: All Operations of the transaction must be completed. If not the transaction is
aborted.

Example: If a transaction T1 has four SQL requests, all four requests must be successfully
completed otherwise the entire transaction is aborted.

Consistency: When a transaction is completed the database must be consistent state. That
means it must satisfies all integrity constraints otherwise the entire transaction is
aborted.

Isolation: The data used during the execution of the transaction cannot be used by a
second transaction until the first transaction is completed.

Durability: Once the transaction changes are done they cannot be undone even in the
system failure.

Transaction Management in SQL

When a transaction sequence is initiated by a user the sequence must continue

through SQL statements until one of the following four events occurs.

1. A COMMIT statement is reached in which case all changes are permanently recorded
into the database.
2. A ROLLBACK statement is reached in which case all changes are aborted and the
database is ROLLBACK to previous state.
3. The END of the transaction is successfully reached. In which case all changes are
regarded within the database. This action is equivalent to COMMIT.
4. The transaction is abnormally terminated. In which case the changes made in the
database are aborted and the database is ROLLLBACK to previous state. This action
equivalent to ROLLBACK.

The Transaction Log

149 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 1. The DBMS uses a transaction log file to keep track of all transaction that update the
database.
2. The Information stored in the log file is used by the DBMS for ROLLBACK, abnormal
termination or system failure.
3. While DBMS executes transactions that modify the database, it also automatically
updates the transaction log.
4. The transaction log stores
a. A record for the beginning of transaction.
b. For each transaction components
i. The type of operation is being to perform.
ii. The name of the object effected by the transaction (Name of the table).
iii. The “Before” and “After” values for the fields being updated.
iv. Pointers to the previous and next transaction log entries for the same
transaction.
c. The end of the transaction log.

Eg: update product set prod_qua=prod_qua-2

Where prod_code=’p10001’;

Update Customer set cus_bal=Bal+8000

Where cust_no=’c1234’;

The transaction log for the above transaction is,

TRL_i TRX PREV NEXT OPERATIO TABLE ROW ATTRIBUT BEFOR AFTE
d - -PTR -PTR N -ID E E R
NU VALUE VALU
M E

150 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

341 101 Null 352 START Start
operatio
n

352 101 341 363 update Product 1011 Product_po 25 23

h

363 101 352 365 Update Custmer 363 Cust_Balan 525.1 615.75
ce 5

365 101 363 null commit End of

operatio
n

If the system failures occur the DBMS will examine the transaction log for incomplete
transaction and ROLLBACK the database to its previous state.

Q. Explain Concurrency control in transaction management.

Concurrency control is important because the simultaneously execution of transaction

over a shared database can create several data integrity and consistency problems.

1. Lost updates.
2. Uncommitted data
3. Data inconsistency.

Lost Updates:

The Lost update problem occurs when two concurrent transitions T 1 and T2 are
updating the same data element and one of the update is lost.

Eg: The two concurrent transactions T1 and T2 update the prod_qua value for same item in the
prod table. Assume that current prod_qua value is 35.
151 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 Transaction Computation

T1: Purchase 100 units prod_qua=prod_qua+100

T2:Sale 30 units prod_qua=prod_qua-30

The following table shows the serial execution of those transaction under the normal
circumstance gives the answer.

Time Transaction Step Stored Value

1 T1 READ PROD_QOH 35

2 T1 PROD_QOH=35+10
0

3 T1 WRITE PROD_QOH 135

4 T2 READ PROD_QOH 135

5 T2 PROD_QOH=135-30

6 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH 105

Suppose that transaction is read a prod_qua value from a table before a previous transaction
has been committed. This sequence shows the following table, how the lost update problem
can occur.

Time Transaction Step Stored Value

1 T1 READ PROD_QOH 35
152 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
2 T2 READ PROD_QOH 35

3 T1 PROD_QOH=35+10
0

4 T2 PROD_QOH=35-30

5 T1 WRITE PROD_QOH 135

6 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH 5

Uncommitted Data

The uncommitted data problem occur when two transactions T1 and T2 are executed
concurrently and the first transaction T1 is Rolled back after the second transaction T2 has
already accessed the uncommitted data.

Eg: The two concurrent transactions T1 & T2 update the prod_qua value for some item in the
prod table assumes that the current prod_qua value is 35.

Transaction Computation

T1: Purchase 100 units prod_qua=prod_qua+100

T2: Sale 30 units prod_qua=prod_qua-30

The following table shows under normal circumstance, the serial execution of this transaction
use that transaction.

Time Transaction Step Stored Value

153 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

1 T1 READ PROD_QOH 35

2 T1 PROD_QOH=35+100

3 T1 WRITE PROD_QOH 135

4 T1 ROLLBACK 35

5 T2 READ PROD_QOH 35

6 T2 PROD_QOH=135-30

7 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH 5

The following table shows, how the uncommitted data problem can arise when the Roll back
is completed after T2 has begin its execution.

Time Transaction Step Stored Value

1 T1 READ PROD_QOH 35

2 T1 PROD_QOH=35+10
0

3 T1 WRITE PROD_QOH 135

4 T2 READ PROD_QOH 135

(Read uncommitted
data)

5 T2 PROD_QOH=135-30

6 T1 ROLLBACK 35

7 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH 105

Inconsistency Retrievals

Inconsistency retrieval occur when a transaction access data before and after another
transaction finish working with same data.
154 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 For example the transaction T1 calculates the total prod_qua of the products stored in
the product table. At the same time T 2 updates prod_qua for two products in the product
table.

TRANSACTION 1 TRANSACTION 2

Select sum(Prod_QOH)from Product Update Product set PROD_QOH+10 where

Prod_code=1003;

Update Product set PROD_QOH- 10 where

Prod_code=1004;

Commit;

The following table show the results of above two transactions.

Prod_code BEFORE AFTER

PROD_QOH PROD_QOH

1001 8 8

1002 32 32

1003 15 15+10=25

1004 23 23-10=13

1005 8 8

1006 6 6

Total=92 Total=92

The final result shows in the above table are correct.

155 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 The following demonstrates that inconsistency retrievals are possible. During the
transaction T1 executes in the absence of concurrency control.

While summing the prod_qua of the transaction T1 reads the after prod_qua25 for
prod_code=1003 and reads the before prod_qua=23 for prod_code=1004. Gives the result
102.

The following table shows the inconsistent retrievals’.

TIME TRANSACTION STEP VALUE TOTAL

1 T1 READ PROD_QOH for 8 8

PROD_CODE=1001

2 T1 READ PROD_QOH for 32 40

PROD_CODE=1002

3 T2 READ PROD_QOH for 15

PROD_CODE=1003

4 T2 READ PROD_QOH =15+10

5 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH for 25

PROD_CODE=1003

6 T1 READ PROD_QOH for 25 65(AFTER)

PROD_CODE=1003

7 T1 READ PROD_QOH for 23 88(Befor)

PROD_CODE=1004

8 T2 READ PROD_QOH for 23

PROD_CODE=1003

9 T2 READ PROD_QOH =23-10

10 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH for 13

PROD_CODE=1004

11 T2 COMMIT

12 T1 READ PROD_QOH for 8 96

PROD_CODE=1005

13 T1 READ PROD_QOH for 6 102

156 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 PROD_CODE=1006

The Scheduler:

The scheduler is a special DBMS process. The scheduler uses the concurrency control
algorithms such as locking or time stamp methods to control the concurrent executions of
transactions on the same database.

Concurrency Control with locking methods

A transaction acquires a lock before to data access the lock is released when the
transaction is completed. So that another transaction can lock the data item for its exclusive
use all lock information is managed by a lock manager.

Lock Granularity

Lock granularity indicates the level of use locking can takes place at the following
levels:

1. Database level lock

2. Table level lock
3. Page level lock
4. Row level lock
5. Field level lock.

Database level:

In Database level lock the entry database is lock preventing the use of any tables in the
database by transaction T2 while transacting T1 is being executed.

1. This type of locking is unsuitable for multi user DBMS because transactions to be
completed.
2. In database level lock transactions cannot access the same database concurrently even
when they use different tables.

157 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Table level lock

1. In table level lock, the entire table is locked preventing access to any row by
transaction T2 while transaction T1 is using a table.
2. If a transaction requires several tables, each table may be locked.
3. Table level locks also cause traffic jam when many transactions are waiting to access
the same table.

The following shows transactions T1 and T2 cannot access the same table even when they
trying to use different rows, T2 must wait until T1 unlocks the table.

158 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Page Level

A page has a fixed size such as 4KB, 8KB or 12KB.

1. A table can span several pages and a page can contains several rows. A page level locks
are most frequently used multi user DBMS locking method.

The following shows transactions access the same table while locking different pages. If T 2
requires the use of a row located on a page that is locked by T 1, T2 must wait until the page is
unlocked by T1.

Row level
159 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 The DBMS allows concurrent transactions to access different rows of a same table even
when the row are rotated on the same page. Although the row level locking approach the
improves the availability of the rows but its management requires high overhead.

The following shows the row level lock.

Field Level

The field level lock allows concurrent transactions to access the same but different
fields. The field level locking gives most flexible multiuser data access but it requires an
extremely high level overheads.

Lock Types:

The DBMS may use different lock types.

1. Binary lock
2. Shared/ Exclusive lock.

Binary Lock: A binary lock has two states locked (1), unlocked (0). Every transaction
requires a lock and unlock operations for each data item that is accessed such operations
automatically managed by DBMS.

160 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

TIME TRANSACTION STEP STORED VALUE

1 T1 LOCK PRODUCT

2 T1 READ PROD_QOH 35

3 T1 PROD_QOH=35+100

4 T1 WRITE PROD_QOH 135

5 T1 UNLOCK PRODUCT

6 T2 LOCK PRODUCT

7 T2 READ PROD_QOH 135

8 T2 PROD_QOH=135-30

9 T2 WRITE PROD_QOH 105

10 T2 UNLOCK PRODUCT

Shared or Exclusive lock

1. A shared lock exists when concurrent transactions are granted read access on the
database of a common locking.
2. An exclusive lock is issued when a transaction wants to update a data item and no lock
are held on that data item by any other transaction.

The following table shows conflict when at least one of a transaction is a write operation.

TRANSACTION RESULT

161 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 T1 T2

READ READ No Conflict

OPERATION READ WRITE Conflict

WRITE READ Conflict

WRITE WRITE Conflict

For example if transaction T1 has a shared lock on a data item x and transaction T 2
wants to read data item x, T2 may also obtain a shared lock on data item x.

For example if a shared or exclusive lock is already held on data item x by transaction
T1 exclusive lock cannot be granted to transaction T2 and T2 must wait until T1 completes. This
condition is known as mutual exclusive rule.

Two Phase locking

The two phases are

i. Growing Phase
ii. Shrinking Phase.

Growing Phase:

In growing phase the transaction acquires all required locks on data item. Once all
locks have been acquired the transaction is in locked point and performs the operation.

Shrinking Phase:

When the transaction completed the operations then starts the shrinking phase. In shrinking
phase the transaction releases all locks and cannot obtain any new locks.

162 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 The transaction acquires all the locks it needs. When the locked point is reached then
performs the operation, when the transaction is completed it releases all the locks.

Dead Lock

A dead lock occurs when two users have a lock each on separate resources. They want
to acquire a lock on each other resources.

In this situation, the first user has to wait until the second user releases the lock and
alternatively the second user also waits till the first user releases the lock. At this stage both
the users are in a waiting state. They cannot proceed with their work.

The following table shows how a deadlock condition occurs.

163 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Dead locks are possible only when one of the transactions wants to obtain an exclusive
lock on a data item, no dead lock item can exists among shared locks.

The three basic techniques to control dead locks are.

1. Dead Lock Prevention.

2. Dead Lock Detection
3. Dead Lock Avoidance.

Dead Lock Prevention

A transaction requesting a new lock is aborted when there is possibility that a dead
lock can occurs. If a transaction is aborted, all changes made by the transaction are rolled
back and all locks obtained by the transaction are released.

Dead Lock Detection

The DBMS periodically test the database for dead locks. If a dead lock is found one of
the transactions is rolled back and other transaction continues.

Dead Lock Avoidance

The transaction must obtain all the locks it needs before it can be executed. The choice
of the best deadlock control method to use depends on the database environment.
For example, if the Probability of deadlocks is low, deadlock detection is recommended.
However, if the probability of deadlocks is high, deadlock prevention is recommended.

Concurrency Control with Time Stamp methods

The time stamping approach to scheduling concurrent transactions assigns unique

time stamp to each transaction. Based on the time stamp the transaction will be executed. All

164 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

database operations within the same transaction must have the same time stamp. The DBMS
executes conflicting operations in the time stamp order.

Wait/Die and Wound/Wait Scheme

Assume that we have two conflicting transactions T 1 and T2. T1 has a time stamp 1154
and T2 has a time stamp 1956. T1 is older transaction and T2 is younger transaction.

Wait or Die scheme

1. If a transaction requesting a lock is the older of two transactions, the older transaction
will wait until the younger transaction is completed.
2. If a transaction requesting a lock is the younger of two transactions, the younger
transaction will die (rollback) and younger transaction is rescheduled using the same
time stamp.

Wound or Wait Scheme

1. If a transaction requesting a lock is the older of two transactions T 1 wounds T2

(rollback), T2 is rescheduled. The younger transaction is rescheduled using the same
time stamp.
2. If a transaction requesting a lock is the younger of two transactions, the younger
transaction will wait until the older transaction is completed.

Database Recovery Management

Database recovery restores a database from a inconsistent state to consistent state.

Any transaction operations cannot be completed, the transaction must be rollback and any
changes to the database must be rolled back. Recovery techniques applied to the database
after some types of critical events occurred to the system.

Example of Critical Events

165 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
 1. Hardware or Software failure
Hardware failures are the hard disk failure. A bad capacitor on the mother
board. The software failures are the application program are the operating systems
error that cause data to be deleted.

Human Caused Incident

This type of events can be categorized as,

 Unintentional
 Intentional

An Unintentional Failure: Under this category, the humans are deleting the wrong rows
from a table pressing the keys or shutdown the server by accidentally.

An Intentional Failure: Under this category, the unauthorized users accessing the database
to perform operations on the database and virus attackers on the database to damage the
data on the computers.

Natural Incidents

Under this category earthquakes and floods, because of that the database may be lost.

The critical events can render the database in an consistent state. The various
techniques are used to recovery the database from an inconsistent state to consistent state.

Transaction Recovery

The following are the four important concepts that affect the recovery process.

1. The Write ahead protocol

The transaction logs are always written before any database data are updated.

2. Redundant Transaction Locks

We are maintaining several copies of transaction log in different storage
devices.

3. Database Buffer
Database buffers are temporary storage areas in primary memory used to speed
up disk operations.

4. Database Check Points

166 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Data base check points are operations in which the DBMS writes all of its
updated buffers to disk. Check point operations also registered in the transaction log.
Check points are automatically scheduled by the several times per hour.

Transaction recovery procedure uses differed write and write through

techniques.

Differed Write

In this technique the transaction operations do not immediately update the database,
only the transaction log is updated. The database is updated only after the transaction
reaches commit, using information from the transaction log if the transaction aborts
before it reaches commit, no changes made in the database by the transaction because the
database was never updated. The recovery process for all started and committed
transaction follows these steps.

1. For a transaction that started and was committed before the last check point. Nothing
needs to be done because the data already saved.
2. For a transaction that performed a commit operation after the last check point, the
DBMS uses the transaction log records to redo the transaction and to update the
database, using the after values in the transaction log.
3. For a transaction that has a roll back operation after the last check point, nothing
needs to be done because the database was never updated.

Write through technique

In this technique the database is immediately updated by the transaction operation

even before the aborts, before it reaches commit point a undo operation needs to restore the
database to a consistency. The recovery process follows these steps.

1. For a transaction that started and was committed before the last check point. Nothing
needs to be done because the data are already saved.
2. For a transaction that was committed after the last check point, the DBMS uses the
transaction log records to redo the transaction, using the after values in the
transaction log.
3. For any transaction that had a any roll back operation after the log check point the
DBMS uses the transaction log to undo the operations using the before values in the
transaction log.

Chapter - 11

167 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Distributed Database Management Systems

Centralized Database System:

A Centralized database is a database which is located and maintained in one location,

unlike a distributed database. One main advantage of centralized database is that all data is
located in one place and the disadvantage is that bottlenecks may occur.

The use of a centralized database required that corporate data be stored in a single
central site, usually a mainframe computer. Data access was provided through dumb
terminals.

A Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) consists of a single logical

database that is split into a number of fragments. Each fragment is stored on one or more
computers under the control of a separate DBMS, with the computers connected by a
communications network. Each site is capable of independently processing user requests that
require access to local data (that is, each site has some degree of local autonomy) and is also
capable of processing data stored on other computers in the network.

Distributed DBMS Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Data are located near the greatest demand site.

• Faster data access. End users often work with only a locally stored subset of the company’s
data.

• Faster data processing. A distributed database system spreads out the systems workload
by processing data at several sites.

• Growth facilitation. New sites can be added to the network without affecting the
operations of other sites.
168 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
• Improved communications. Because local sites are smaller and located closer to customers,
local sites foster better communication among departments and between customers and
company staff.

• Reduced operating costs. It is more cost-effective to add workstations to a network than to

update a mainframe system. Development work is done more cheaply and more quickly on
low-cost PCs than on mainframes.

• User-friendly interface. PCs and workstations are usually equipped with an easy-to-use
graphical user interface (GUI). The GUI simplifies training and use for end users.

• Less danger of a single-point failure. When one of the computers fails, the workload is
picked up by other workstations. Data are also distributed at multiple sites.

• Processor independence. The end user is able to access any available copy of the data, and
an end user's request is processed by any processor at the data location.

Disadvantages:

• Complexity of management and control. Applications must recognize data location, and
they must be able to stitch together data from various sites. Database administrators must
have the ability to coordinate database activities to prevent database degradation due to data
anomalies.

• Technological difficulty. Data integrity, transaction management, concurrency control,

security, backup, recovery, query optimization, access path selection, and so on, must all be
addressed and resolved.

• Security. The probability of security lapses increases when data are located at multiple
sites. The responsibility of data management will be shared by different people at several
sites.

• Lack of standards. There are no standard communication protocols at the database level.
(Although TCP/IP is the de facto standard at the network level, there is no standard at the
application level.) For example, different database vendors employ different—and often
incompatible—techniques to manage the distribution of data and processing in a DDBMS
environment.

• Increased storage and infrastructure requirements. Multiple copies of data are required
at different sites, thus requiring additional disk storage space.

• Increased training cost. Training costs are generally higher in a distributed model than
they would be in a centralized model, sometimes even to the extent of offsetting operational
and hardware savings.

169 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

• Costs. Distributed databases require duplicated infrastructure to operate (physical location,
environment, personnel, software, licensing, etc.)

Distributed processing:

In distributed processing, a database’s logical processing is shared among two or more

physically independent sites that are connected through a network.

Although the database resides at only one site (Miami), each site can access the data
and update the database. The database is located on Computer A, a network computer known
as the database server.

Distributed Database:

A Distributed database stores a logically related data base in two or more sites. The
sites are connected via a communication network.

In distributed database system a database is composed of of several parts known as

database fragments. The database fragments are located at different sites. An example of
distributed database environment is shown below.

170 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 In the above diagram the database is divided into three fragments (E1,E2,E3) located at
different sites. When you compare the distributed database the following points are
observed.

1. Distributed processing does not require a distributed database, but a distributed

database requires distributed processing (each database fragment is managed by its
own local database process).

2. Distributed processing may be based on a single database located on a single

computer. For the management of distributed data, copies or parts of the database
processing functions must be distributed to all data storage sites.

3. Both distributed processing and distributed databases require a network to connect all
components.

171 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Characteristics of distributed database management system:

The Characteristics of distributed database management system are

1. Application interface: To interact with the end user, application programs, and other
DBMSs within the distributed database.

2. Validation: To analyze data requests for syntax correctness.

3. Transformation: To decompose complex requests into atomic data request

components

4. Mapping: To determine the data location of local and remote fragments.

5. I/O interface: To read or write data from or to permanent local storage.

6. Security : To provide data privacy at both local and remote databases.

7. Backup and recovery: To ensure the availability and recoverability of the database in
case of a failure.

8. Concurrency control: To manage simultaneous data access and to ensure data

consistency across database fragments in the DDBMS.

9. Transaction management: To ensure that the data moves from one consistent state
to another. This activity includes the synchronization (bringing together) of local and
remote transactions as well as transactions across multiple distributed segments.

DDBMS COMPONENTS:

The components of DDBMS are

Computer workstations: It form the network system. The distributed database system must
be independent of the computer system hardware.

Network hardware and software: the network hardware and software components that
resides in each workstation. The network components allow all sites to interact and
exchange data.

Communications media: The communication media that carry the data from one node to
another.

172 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Transaction processor (TP):

The transaction processor (TP), which is the software component found in each
computer or device that requests data. The transaction processor receives and processes the
application’s data requests (remote and local). The TP is also known as the application
processor (AP) or the transaction manager (TM).

Data processor (DP):

The data processor (DP), which is the software component residing on each
computer or device that stores and retrieves data located at the site. The DP is also known as
the data manager (DM).

Levels of data and process Distribution:

173 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
In SPSD all processing is done on a single host computer (mainframe computer) and all data
are stored on the host computer’s hard disk.

Processing cannot be done on the end user’s side of the system.

The transaction processor and Data processor are embedded with in the DBMS located on a
single computer.

Multiple-Site Processing, Single-Site Data (MPSD)

Under the multiple-site processing, single-site data (MPSD) scenario, multiple processes
run on different computers sharing a single data repository. The MPSD scenario requires a
network file server.

The TP on each workstation acts only as a redirector to route all network data requests to the
file server.

The data storage (I/O) is handled by the file server.

174 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
All records and the files locking activities are done at the work station.

All data selection, search, and update functions take place at the workstation, thus requiring
that entire files travel through the network for processing at the workstation. Such a
requirement increases network traffic, slows response time, and increases communication
costs.

Multiple-Site Processing, Multiple-Site Data (MPMD):

The multiple-site processing, multiple-site data (MPMD) scenario supports multiple

transaction processing and multiple data processing at multiple sites. The DDBMSs are
classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Homogeneous DDBMSs: Homogeneous DDBMS supports same DBMS will be running on

different server platforms.

Heterogeneous DDBMSs: Heterogeneous DDBMS supports different DBMS will be running

on different server platforms.

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE TRANSPARENCY FEATURES:

The DDBMS transparency features are:

Distribution transparency, which allows a distributed database to be treated as a single

logical database. If a DDBMS exhibits distribution transparency, the user does not need to
know:

a. About the data are partitioned (meaning the table’s rows and columns are split
vertically or horizontally and stored among multiple sites.)

b. That the data can be replicated at several sites.

c. The data location.

Transaction transparency, which allows a transaction to update data at more than one
network site. Transaction transparency ensures that the transaction will be either entirely
completed or aborted, thus maintaining database integrity.

Failure transparency, which ensures that the system will continue to operate in the event of
a node failure.

Performance transparency: The system will not suffer any performance degradation due
to its use on a network or due to the network’s platform differences.

175 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Heterogeneity transparency, which allows the integration of several different local DBMSs
under a common, or global, schema. The DDBMS is responsible for translating the data
requests from the global schema to the local DBMS schema.

DISTRIBUTION TRANSPARENCY:

Three levels of distribution transparency are recognized:

Fragmentation transparency: It is the highest level of transparency. The end user or

programmer does not need to know the fragment names and fragment locations to access
data.

Location transparency: This is the middle level of transparency. The end user must specify
fragement name and does not need to specify the location name.

Local mapping transparency: This is the lowest level of transparency. The end user or
programmer must specify both the fragment names and their locations name.

For example the employee data are distributed over three different locations – Delhi,
Hyderabad, Banglore.

The Delhi employees data are stored in fragment E1, Hyderabad employees data are stored in
fragment E2, Banglore employees data are stored in fragment E3 is shown below.

Suppose the end user wants to list all the employees with a date of birth before Jan 1,1980.
The end user written this query in the fragmentation transparency as shown below.

Select * from employees where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’;

The end user written this Query in the location Transparency as shown below.

Select * from E1 where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’

Union

176 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Select * from E2 where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’

Union

Select * from E3 where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’;

The end user written this Query in the local Transparency as shown below.

Select * from E1 Delhi where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’

Union

Select * from E2 Hyderabad where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’

Union

Select * from E3 Banglore where DOB< ’01-jan-1980’;

TRANSACTION TRANSPARENCY

To understand how the transactions are managed in the DDBMS, we should know the basic
concepts of remote request, remote transaction, Distributed request and Distributed
transaction.

Remote Request: A Remote request is shown below

Select * from customer where cus_state=’Al’;

The request is directed to customer table at site B.

The single SQL statement access the data that are to be processed by a single Remote
Database processor.

Remote Transaction:

Similarly, a remote transaction, composed of several requests, accesses data at a single

remote site. A remote transaction is shown below.

177 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

BEGIN WORK;

UPDATE PRODUCT SET PROD_QTY = PROD_QTY – 1

WHERE PROD_NUM = ‘231785’;

INSERT INTO INVOICE (CUS_NUM, INV_DATE, INV_TOTAL)

VALUES ‘100’, ‘15-FEB-2010’, 120.00;

COMMIT WORK;

As we examine the above diag. we observe the following points.

1. The transaction updates the product and invoice table (located at site B).

2. The remote transaction is send to and executed at site B.

Distributed Transaction:

A distributed transaction allows a transaction to reference several different local or remote

DP sites.

178 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

BEGIN WORK;

UPDATE PRODUCT

SET PROD_QTY=PROD_QTY – 1 WHERE PROD_NUM = ‘231785’;

INSERT INTO INVOICE (CUS_NUM, INV_DATE, INV_TOTAL) VALUES (‘100’, ‘15-FEB-2010’,

120.00);

UPDATE CUSTOMER SET CUS_BALANCE = CUS_BALANCE + 120

WHERE CUS_NUM = ‘100’;

COMMIT WORK;

As we observe the above diag. the following features are

1. The transaction references two remote sites (B and C).

2. The first two requests (UPDATE PRODUCT and INSERT INTO INVOICE) are processed
by the DP at the remote site C, and the last request (UPDATE CUSTOMER) is processed
by the DP at the remote site B.

3. Each request can access only one remote site at a time.

The third characteristic may create problems. For example, suppose the table PRODUCT is
divided into two fragments, PRODl and PROD2, located at sites B and C, respectively, the
distributed transaction cannot access the data from more than one site. Therefore the DDBMS
must be support a distributed request.

179 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Distributed request:

The Distributed request allows a single request to reference a partitioned table in several
sites.

For ex. Customer table is divided into two fragments E1 and E2 located at site B and Site C are
shown below.

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER WHERE CUS_BALANCE > 250;

Distributed concurrency control:

Concurrency control is very important in the distributed database environment because

multisite, multiple-process operations are create data inconsistencies and deadlocked
transactions.

Suppose that each transaction operation was committed by each local DP, but one of the DPs
could not commit the transaction. Then the transaction is ‘Aborted’. Otherwise the
transaction(s) would yield an inconsistent database.

The solution for the problem is a two-phase commit protocol.

180 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Two phase protocol:

In distributed database a transaction access data at several sites. A final commit must not be
issued until all sites have committed their parts of the transaction.

The two phase commit protocol guaranties that if a portion of a transaction operations
cannot be committed all changes made at the others sites by the transaction will be aborted.

Each DP maintains its own transaction log. The transaction log for each DP written before the
database fragment is updated.

The two phase commit protocols requires a DO-UNDO-REDO protocol and a write a head
protocol. The DO-UNDO-REDO protocols defines three types of Operations.

a) Performs the operations and before and after values in the transaction log.

b) Undo reverses an operation, using the log written by DO operation.

c) REDO reduces the operation using the Transaction Log written by the DO portion of
sequences.

The Two-Phase commit protocol defines the operations between two types of nodes: the
coordinator and one or more subordinates, or cohorts. The participating nodes agree on a
coordinator.

The protocol is implemented in two phases:

Phase 1: Preparation

The coordinator sends a PREPARE TO COMMIT message to all subordinates.

1. The sub coordinator receive the message; write the transaction log, using the write-ahead
protocol; and send an acknowledgment (YES/PREPARED TO COMMIT or NO/NOT
PREPARED) message to the coordinator.

181 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

2. If all nodes are PREPARED TO COMMIT, the transaction goes to Phase 2. If one or more
nodes reply NO or NOT PREPARED, the coordinator broadcasts an ABORT message to all
subordinates.

Phase 2: The Final COMMIT

1. The coordinator broadcasts a COMMIT message to all subordinates and waits for the
replies.

2. Each subordinate receives the COMMIT message, and then updates the database using the
DO protocol.

3. The subordinates reply with a COMMITTED or NOT COMMITTED message to the

coordinator.

If one or more subordinates did not commit, the coordinator sends an ABORT message,
thereby forcing them to UNDO all changes.

Note: The objective of the two-phase commit is to ensure that each node commits its part of
the transaction; otherwise, the transaction is aborted.

PERFORMANCE TRANSPARENCY AND QUERY OPTIMIZATION:

In centralized database all data resides at a single site. The DBMS evaluate data request and
find the most efficient way to access the data.

In DDBMS the database is divided into several fragments. In DDBMS Query evoluation is more
complicated, because the DDBMS must decide which fragment of data is access. In addition
the data may also repeated several times.

The DDBMS uses query optimization technique to deal with such problems.

The objective of the query optimization is to minimize the total execution cost of the request.

Access time (I/O) cost: It involved in accessing the physical data stored on disk.

Communication cost: It associated with the transmission of data among nodes in distributed
database systems.

CPU time cost: It associated with the processing overhead of managing distributed
transactions.

The most important characteristics of query optimization in distributed database systems is

that it must provide distribution transparency as well as replica transparency.

Replica transparency refers to the DDBMS’s ability to hide the existence of multiple copies
of data from the user.
182 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science
Query optimizations are based on two principles:

a) The selection of the optimum execution order.

b) The selection of sites to be accessed to minimize communication costs.

Query optimization algorithm can be evaluated the request on the basis of its operation mode
or the timing of its optimization.

Operation modes can be classified as manual or automatic.

Automatic query optimization automatically scheduled by the transaction

Manual query optimization scheduled by the end user or programmer.

Timings of its Optimization: Timing Optimization mode can be classified as static or

Dynamic

Static query optimization: When the program is submitted to the DBMS for compilation, it
creates the necessary plan to access the database. When the program is executed, the DBMS
uses that plan to access the database.

Dynamic query optimization. Database access plan defined when the program is executed.

Finally, query optimization techniques can be classified according to the type of information
that is used to optimize the query.

A statistically based query optimization algorithm uses statistical information about the
database.

The statistics provide information about database characteristics such as size, number of
records, average access time, number of requests serviced, and number of users with access
rights.

The statistical information is managed by the DDBMS and is generated in one of two different
modes: dynamic or manual.

In the dynamic statistical generation mode, the DDBMS automatically evaluates and
updates the statistics after each access.

In the manual statistical generation mode, the statistics must be updated periodically.

A rule-based query optimization algorithm is based on a set of user-defined rules to

determine the best query access strategy.

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE DESIGN:

183 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Fragmentation:

Data fragmentation allows you to break a single object into two or more segments, or
fragments. The object might be a user’s database, a system database, or a table. Each fragment
can be stored at any site over a computer network.

Horizontal fragmentation partitions the rows of a global fragment into subsets. A fragment
r1 is a selection on the global fragment r using a predicate Pi, its qualification. The
reconstruction of r is obtained by taking the union of all fragments.

Vertical fragmentation subdivides the attributes of the global fragment into groups. The
simplest form of vertical fragmentation is decomposition. A unique row-id may be included in
each fragment to guarantee that the reconstruction through a join operation is possible.

Mixed fragmentation is the result of the successive application of both fragmentation

techniques.

Rules for Fragmentation

1. Fragments are formed by the select predicates associated with dominant database
transactions. The predicates specify attribute values used in the conjunctive (AND) and
disjunctive (OR) form of select commands, and rows (records) containing the same values
form fragments.

2. Fragments must be disjoint and their union must become the whole fragment. Overlapping
fragments are too difficult to analyze and implement.

3. The largest fragment is the whole table. The smallest table is a single record. Fragments
should be designed to maintain a balance between these extremes.

C. J. DATE’S TWELVE COMMANDMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTED DATABASES

Rule-1.

Local Autonomy. Local data is locally owned and managed, even when it is accessible by a
remote site. Security, integrity, and storage remain under control of the local system. Local
users should not be hampered when their system is part of a distributed system.

Rule-2.

No Central Site. There must be no central point of failure or bottleneck. Therefore the
following must be distributed: dictionary management, query processing, concurrency
control, and recovery control.

Rule-3.

184 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

Continuous Operation. The system should not require a shutdown to add or remove a node
from the network. User applications should not have to change when a new network is added,
provided they do not need information from the added node.

Rule-4.

Location Independence (or Transparency). A common global user view of the database
should be supported so that users need not know where the data is located. This allows data
to be moved for performance considerations or in response to storage constraints without
affecting the user applications.

Rule-5.

Fragmentation Independence (or Transparency). This allows tables to be split among

several sites, transparent to user applications. For example, we can store New York employee
records at the New York site and Boston employees at the Boston site, but allow the user to
refer to the separated data as EMPLOYEES, independent of their locations.

Rule-6.

Replication Independence (or Transparency). This allows several copies of a table (or
portions thereof) to reside at different nodes. Query performance can be improved since
applications can work with a local copy instead of a remote one. Update performance,
however, may be degraded due to the additional copies. Availability can improve.

Rule-7.

Distributed Query Processing. No central site should perform optimization; but the
submitting site, which receives the query from the user, should decide the overall strategy.
Other participants perform optimization at their own levels.

Rule-8.

Distributed Transaction Processing. The system should process a transaction across

multiple databases exactly as if all of the data were local. Each node should be capable of
acting as a coordinator for distributed updates, and as a participant in other transactions.
Concurrency control must occur at the local level (Rule 2), but there must also be cooperation
between individual systems to ensure that a “global deadlock” does not occur.

Rule-9.

Hardware Independence. The concept of a single database system must be presented

regardless of the underlying hardware used to implement the individual systems.

Rule-10.

185 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science

 Operating System Independence. The concept of a single database system must be
presented regardless of the underlying operating systems used.

Rule-11.

Network Independence. The distributed system must be capable of communicating over a

wide variety of networks, often different ones in the same configuration. Standard network
protocols must be adhered to.

Rule-12.

DBMS Independence (Heterogeneity). The distributed system should be able to be made

up of individual sites running different database management systems.

186 M N Ravindra Department of Computer Science