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Discrete_Structures_Notes_with_Examples_Fixed

The document provides comprehensive notes on discrete structures, covering topics such as mathematical reasoning, propositional and predicate logic, rules of inference, proof techniques, set theory, relations and functions, recurrence relations, functions and mappings, number theory, counting principles, permutations and combinations, graph theory basics, and traversals. Each topic includes definitions and examples to illustrate key concepts. The notes serve as a foundational resource for understanding discrete mathematics.

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hamzajaved93333
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24 views

Discrete_Structures_Notes_with_Examples_Fixed

The document provides comprehensive notes on discrete structures, covering topics such as mathematical reasoning, propositional and predicate logic, rules of inference, proof techniques, set theory, relations and functions, recurrence relations, functions and mappings, number theory, counting principles, permutations and combinations, graph theory basics, and traversals. Each topic includes definitions and examples to illustrate key concepts. The notes serve as a foundational resource for understanding discrete mathematics.

Uploaded by

hamzajaved93333
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Comprehensive Notes with Examples on Discrete Structures Course Content

Mathematical Reasoning

Mathematical reasoning is the process of logical thinking to derive conclusions. It involves using

logic to solve problems and prove statements.

Example: To prove that the sum of two even numbers is even, let two even numbers be 2a and 2b

(where a and b are integers). Their sum is 2a + 2b = 2(a + b), which is also even.

Propositional and Predicate Logic

Propositional logic deals with statements that are either true or false, combined with logical

operators like AND, OR, and NOT.

Predicate logic extends this by including variables and quantifiers (e.g., 'for all', 'there exists').

Example: In propositional logic, 'P AND Q' means both P and Q are true. In predicate logic, 'For all

x, if P(x) then Q(x)' means for all x, if P(x) is true, then Q(x) is also true.

Rules of Inference

Rules of inference are patterns of reasoning to derive conclusions from premises. Examples include

Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens.

Example: Modus Ponens states that if 'P implies Q' and 'P' are both true, then 'Q' must be true.

If 'If it rains, the ground will be wet' (P implies Q) and 'It is raining' (P), then 'The ground is wet' (Q).

Proof Techniques

Different techniques are used to prove mathematical statements:

- Proof by Contradiction: Assume the negation and show a contradiction.

- Proof by Contraposition: Show that if the conclusion is false, the premise must be false.
- Proof by Induction: Prove a base case and an inductive step.

Example (Proof by Induction): To prove the formula for the sum of the first n integers, 1 + 2 + ... + n

= n(n+1)/2, prove it for n=1 and assume it holds for n=k to prove it holds for n=k+1.

Set Theory

Set theory studies collections of objects called sets. Basic operations include union, intersection,

and complement.

Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}, then A union B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and A intersection B = {2, 3}.

Relations and Functions

A relation is a connection between elements of two sets, and functions are specific relations where

each input has a unique output.

Example: A relation on the set of integers can be 'is divisible by.' A function could be f(x) = x^2,

where each x maps to x squared.

Recurrence Relations

A recurrence relation defines each term in a sequence based on previous terms.

Example: The Fibonacci sequence is defined by F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2), with F(1) = 1 and F(2) = 1.

Functions and Mappings

Functions or mappings assign each element from a domain to exactly one element in a range.

Example: For the function f(x) = x + 3, if the domain is {1, 2, 3}, the function maps to the range {4, 5,

6}.
Number Theory

Number theory studies properties of integers, such as divisibility, primes, and modular arithmetic.

Example: A prime number is an integer greater than 1 with no divisors other than 1 and itself (e.g.,

2, 3, 5, 7).

Counting Principles

Counting principles help determine possible outcomes.

Example (Pigeonhole Principle): If 10 pigeons are placed in 9 pigeonholes, at least one pigeonhole

has more than one pigeon.

Permutations and Combinations

Permutations and combinations are ways to count arrangements and selections.

Example: For a set of 3 objects {A, B, C}, there are 6 permutations (ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB,

CBA) and 3 combinations (AB, AC, BC) if order does not matter.

Graph Theory Basics

Graph theory studies structures made of vertices and edges. Topics include planar graphs, coloring,

and paths.

Example: An Euler path in a graph visits every edge exactly once. A Hamiltonian path visits every

vertex exactly once.

Traversals

Traversals visit every node in a structure like a tree or graph. Common traversals include DFS and

BFS.
Example: In a binary tree, DFS can visit nodes in Preorder, Inorder, or Postorder. BFS visits nodes

level by level.

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