DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA

EET219
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

Prescribed Book:
B.L. THERAJA and A. K. Theraja, A Textbook Of
Electrical Tech. Vol. 1 Basic Electrical Engineering

Dr. C. Alenoghena, Dr ‘Ayo IMORU & Dr A Daniyan

 Code of Conduct
• Attendance
• Sign register each week.
• Minimum attendance of 75% is mandatory.
• Classroom behaviour:
• Arrive on time for lectures and be prepared
(self study).
• Usage of cell phones in the class is prohibited
• Responsibility of students
• Success of learning in the course. Write all
tests and hand in assignments/practical work
as at when due.
 Course Synopsis
PART-I
• Basic atomic theory: Conductors, insulators
and semiconductors.
• Electric current concept: Electrical
quantities (emf, current, potential, p.d.,
power, energy). Basic circuit elements:
functions, properties and identification.
• D.C. circuits: Ohm’s law, voltage- and
current-divider theorems, KVL, KCL, mesh
current analysis, node potential methods,
Thevenin and Norton equivalents,
superposition theorem, maximum power
transfer theorem.
 Course Synopsis (2)
PART-II
• Electrostatics, Magnetism &
Electromagnetism.
• A.C. signals: generation, parameters. Effect
of a.c. signals on resistor, capacitor and
inductor. RC, RL, LC and RLC circuits with d.
c. input (transient analysis).
• Batteries: Primary cells (Zn-C, alkaline,
mercury, fuel cells). Secondary cells (e.g.
lead-acid), connection of cells (series,
parallel, series-parallel).
 EET - 219
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

PART-I
 TODAY’S TOPIC

• BASIC ATOMIC THEORY:

Conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.

• FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL
CONCEPTS
Fundamental Electrical
Concepts
Charge, Current, Voltage,
Power and Energy
 Electric Charge (Q)
• Characteristic of subatomic particles that
determines their electromagnetic
interactions

• An electron has a -1.602∙10-19 Coulomb

charge

• The rate of flow of charged particles is

called current
 Current (I)
• Current = (Number of electrons that pass
in one second) ∙ (charge/electron)
 -1 ampere = (6.242∙1018 e/sec) ∙(-1.602
10-19Coulomb/e)
 Notice that an ampere = Coulomb/second
• The negative sign indicates that the current
inside is actually flowing in the opposite
direction of the electron
Electrons flow

Current
 Current (I)
• A sustained flow of electric charge past
a point is called an electric current.
• Specifically, electric current is the rate
that electric charge passes a point, so
Charge
Current = or I = q/t
tim
e
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/sec
 Current
• i = dq/dt – the derivitive or slope of the
charge when plotted against time in
seconds
• Q = ∫ i ∙ dt – the integral or area under the
current when plotted against time in
Current

4seconds
amps

3
2 Q delivered in 0-5 sec= 12.5 Coulombs
1

5 sec
 AC and DC Current
•DC Current has a constant value

•AC Current has a value that changes sinusoidally

Notice that AC current

changes in value and
direction

No net charge is

transferred
 Direct Current
• If the voltage is maintained between two
points in a circuit, charge will flow in one
direction - from high to low potential.
This is called direct current (DC)
• Battery-powered circuits are dc circuits.
 Alternating Current
• If the high & low voltage terminals switch
locations periodically, the current will flow
“back and forth” in the circuit. This is
called alternating current (AC).
• Circuits powered by electrical outlets are
AC circuits.
 Why Does Current Flow?
• A voltage source provides the energy (or
work) required to produce a current
Volts = joules/Coulomb = dW/dQ
• A source takes charged particles (usually
electrons) and raises their potential so they
flow out of one terminal into and through a
transducer (light bulb or motor) on their way
back to the source’s other terminal
 Voltage
• Voltage is a measure of the potential energy
that causes a current to flow through a
transducer in a circuit
• Voltage is always measured as a difference
with respect to an arbitrary common point
called ground
• Voltage is also known as electromotive force
or EMF outside engineering
• An old-fashioned term for electric potential
or voltage is “electromotive force” or “emf”.
 Potential Difference
• Charges can “lose” potential energy by
moving from a location at high potential
(voltage) to a location at low potential.
• Charges will continue to move as long as
the potential difference (voltage) is
maintained.
 Voltage Source
• A battery or electrical outlet is a source
of electric potential or voltage - not
charge.
• The electrons that move in a conductor
are supplied by the conductor - not
the voltage source.
• The net charge on a current-carrying
conductor is zero.
 A Circuit
• Current flows from the higher voltage terminal of the
source into the higher voltage terminal of the
transducer before returning to the source
I

+ Transducer - The source expends

Voltage energy & the transducer
+ converts it into
something useful
Source
Voltage I

-
 Passive Devices
• A passive transducer device functions
only when energized by a source in a
circuit
Passive devices can be modeled by a
resistance
• Passive devices always draw current so
that the+highest
V>0
voltage
-
is present on the
 Notice that the voltage is
terminal where the current enters
measured across thethe
device
 Current is measured
passive device
I>0
through the device
 Active Devices
• Sources expend energy and are
considered active devices
• Their current normally flows out of their
highest voltage terminal
• Sometimes, when there are multiple
sources in a circuit, one overpowers
another, forcing the other to behave in a
passive manner
 Types of Electronic component

PASSIVE ACTIVE
(Do not generate or control current) (Control Voltage) Those that
They do not have gain or have gain or directionality
directionality Examples
Examples
Resistors Transistors

Capacitors Diodes

Inductors Integrated circuit

 Power
• The rate at which energy is transferred
from an active source or used by a passive
device
• P in watts = dW/dt = joules/second
• P= V∙I = dW/dQ ∙ dQ/dt = volts ∙ amps =
watts
• W = ∫ P ∙ dt – so the energy (work in joules)
is equal to the area under the power in
watts plotted against time in seconds
 Electric Power
• Power = energy/time = current x voltage
– P = IV = I2R
– 1 Watt = (1 Amp)(1 Volt)
– 1 kilowatt = 1000 Watts
– A kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy
Energy
 Basic Circuit Elements:
• Identification, Functions and Properties
Generally two groups
1. Active elements - delivers more energy
to the circuit than what the circuit
supplies to it.
2. Passive elements - cannot deliver more
energy to the circuit than what is
supplied to it by the circuit.
Basic Circuit Elements (2)
 Types of resistors

A Typical Resistor
High-Power Fixed Type &
Adjustable Type Wire
Wound

Film Resistor

Wirewound Resistor Carbon Resistor

 Types of resistors cont.

PRECISION WIREWOUND
NIST STANDARD

POWER WIREWOUND
RESISTORS
POWER WIREWOUND RESISTORS

CARBON FILM RESISTORS

FUSE RESISTORS
FOIL RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors:1/4 watts & 10
watts
Resistors: Power >2 watts
Pre-set variable potentiometers
(variable resistors)
Images of Resistors
Higher power potentiometer using
resistive wire.
 High Power Potentiometer
(Small sizes have power rating of 3 watts, largest size
has 10 watts)
Resistors in circuit
 Electrical Resistor
•The flow of electric current is subject to friction. This
friction, or opposition, is called resistance R and is the
property of a conductor that limits current. T
Resistance is the capacity of material to impede the flow of
electrical charge (current)

•The circuit element that models this behavior is the

resistor

•A Resistor always absorbs power and is measured in Watt (w)

 Resistor color codes
Because carbon resistors are small, they are
color coded to mark their resistance (R)
value in ohms.

Bad Boys Ring Our Young Girls But Vicky Gives Willingly
Tolerance
The tolerance of a resistor is the maximum
difference between its actual value and the
required value and is generally expressed as a
plus or minus percentage value.
 For example
A 1kΩ ± 20% tolerance resistor may have a
maximum and minimum value of:

Maximum Resistance Value

1kΩ or 1000Ω + 20% = 1,200Ω's

Minimum Resistance Value

1kΩ or 1000Ω - 20% = 800Ω's

Then a 1kΩ ±20% tolerance resistor may have a

maximum value of 1200Ω's and a minimum value
of 800Ω's resulting in a span of some 400Ω's!!.
 Resistor color codes conts.
Start reading color codes from Left to Right
with the larger width tolerance band
oriented to the right side indicating its
tolerance.
The Standard Resistor
Color Code Chart.
Example

Yellow, Violet, Red, Silver

= 4, 7, 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4k7 10%.

What is the value of the following resistor

and the tolerance?

Red, Violet, Gold, Gold

Answer: 2.7Ω  5%
Example
What is the value of the following resistor and
the tolerance?

Answer: 2700Ω or 2.7kΩ  0.25%

Exercise
Fill in the colour codes for the following resistors: (5)

First Second Third Fourth

Resistor
colour colour colour colour
3,9MΩ  2%

680Ω 1%

0,47Ω 10%

66 Ω 5%

8,2k Ω 5%
Answer
First Second Third Fourth
Resistor
colour colour colour colour
3,9MΩ 2% Orange White Green Red

680Ω 1% Blue Grey Brown Brown

0,47 Ω 10% Yellow Violet Silver Silver

66 Ω 5% Blue Blue Black Gold

8,2k Ω 5% Grey Red Red Gold

 Examples

Resistor Tolerance 1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th 5th band
band
3M65 Ω ± 5%

12k5 Ω ± 0, 1%
28k7 Ω ± 1%

9k31 Ω ± 2%

60.4 Ω ± 0, 5%
 Answer

Resistor Tolerance 1st band 2nd band 3rd band 4th 5th band
band
3M65 Ω ± 5% Orange Blue Green Yellow Gold

12k5 Ω ± 0, 1% Brown Red Green Red Violet

28k7 Ω ± 1% Red Grey Violet Red Brown

9k31 Ω ± 2% White Orange Brown Brown Red

60.4 Ω ± 0, 5% Blue Black Yellow Gold Green

Preferred resistor values: E12, etc.
Because it is not possible to stock all possible
values of resistances in a shop or component
store, preferred values have been chosen to
represent a usable spectrum of values.

Depending on the accuracy required,

resistances are available in 12 values for every
decade (between 1 and 10, 10 and 100, 100
and 1000 etc.) called the E12 series, 24 values
for every decade, called the E24 series, and 48,
96 etc.
 E12, etc conts

The E12 series would cover any possible

value of resistance, if the resistors have a
tolerance of 10%, the E24 series 5%, and
the E96 series 1%, etc. The E12 resistor
series must be memorised.

E12 10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82
 Examples
Fill in the closest E12 preferred resistor values
for the following:

19847Ω

20348 Ω

148223Ω

9.0356 Ω

61 Ω
Answers
 Chips Resistors
A Surface Mount Resistor, or Surface Mount
Device [SMD]. Also refer to the Table of
Resistor Chip Sizes.

100 10Ω

232 2.3kΩ or

2300Ω
 Class work
Determine the resistance of chip resistors with the
following coded values:

Coded values 103 3302 1R8 474 1002

Resistance

value
 Answers

Coded values 103 3302 1R8 474 1002

Resistance 10kΩ 33kΩ 1.8Ω 470kΩ 10kΩ

value
 Resistor colour coding and
ohmic values

• Colour Significant Multiplier Tolerance

Figures
Silver – 10 − 2 ±10%
Gold – 10
− 1 ±5%
Black 0 1 –
Brown 1 10 ±1%
Red 2 10
2 ±2%
Orange 3 10 3 –
Yellow 4 10 4 –
Green 5 10 5 ±0.5%
Blue 6 10
6 ±0.25%
Violet 7 10 7 ±0.1%
Grey 8 10
8 –
White 9 10 9 –
None – – ±20%
(i) For a four-band
 Letter and digit code for resistors
• Resistance Marked as:
Value
0.47 Ω R47
1Ω 1R0
4.7 Ω 4R7
47 Ω 47R
100 Ω 100R
1kΩ 1K0
10 k Ω 10 K
10 M Ω 10 M

• Tolerance is indicated as follows: F = ±1%,

G = ±2%, J = ±5%, K = ±10% and M = ±20%
Thus, for example;
R33M = 0.33 Ω ± 20%

• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/res_2.html (Resistor
Colour Code)
• https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/
passive/resistor/e12/e12.html (E-12 Resistors)
• https://www.hobby-hour.com/electronics/smdcalc.php (Chips
Resistors)
•
 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's law states that the current through
a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential
difference across the two points.
Introducing the constant of proportionality,
the resistance.

• V=IxR
• I =V/R
• R=V/I
 Ohm’s Law(2)
• The voltage across a resistor is
proportional
to the current through the resistor and is
measure in Ohm (Ω)
G = 1/R is the conductance and is measure
in siemens (S).

• The sign of the voltage drop across resistor

is determined by the direction of current:
Positive entering, Negative exiting.
 Definition / Units
• Potential difference is measured in Volts [V]
• Current is measured in Amperes [A]
• Resistance is measured in Ohms [Ω]

• Volt = Ampere x Ohm

• 1 Volt = 1 Ampere x 1 Ohm

• 5 Volt = 5 Ampere x 1 Ohm
 Example 1
• What is the resistance of a resistor that
has a voltage drop of 100 V and a current
through it of 1 A?

• R = V/I
• R = 100 V / 1 A
• R = 100 Ω
 Example 2
• What is the resistance of a resistor that
has a voltage drop of 12 V and a current
through it of 100 mA?

• R = V/I
• R = 12 V / 100 mA
• R = 12 V / 0,1 A
• R = 120 Ω
 Example 3
• What is the voltage that develops over a
resistor of 550 Ω that has a current of 2,
5A flowing through it?

• V = IxR
• V = 2,5 A x 550 Ω
• V = 1375 V
• V = 1,38 kV
 Example 4
• What current is flowing through a 10 kΩ
resistor with a voltage of 5V over it?

• I = V / R
• I = 5 V / 10kΩ
• I = 5 V / 10 000Ω
• I = 0,0005 A
• I = 0,5 mA or 500 µA
 Exercise
• Complete the table:

V I R
9V 0,5A
5V 10kΩ
1mA 1kΩ
500µV 220Ω
3V 560µA
15000mV 3,3MΩ
6,6V 3300µA
Table of scales
Table of scales
 Examples
• 27000 V = 27kV
• 560 A = 0,56kA
• 0,3 A = 300mA
• 5 000 000 Ω = 5M Ω
• 0,0007 V = 700µV
 Class Work
1. 0,04 A = _ mA
2. 500 000 Ω = _ kΩ
3. 500 000 Ω = _ MΩ
4. 0,0003 V = _ µV
5. 3,14 x 10^7 = _ MΩ
 Answers
1. 40 mA
2. 500 kΩ
3. 0,5 MΩ
4. 300 µV
5. 31,4 MΩ
Multiples and sub-multiples
 Electric Power and Energy
• Electrical power P in an electrical circuit is
given by the product of potential difference
2
V and current I. (P= VI, P= I R, P = V /R)
2

• Electrical energy = power × time (watt-

seconds or joules; or kilowatt-hours,) often
called the ‘unit of electricity’. The ‘electricity
meter’ in the
home records the number of kilowatt-hours
used and is thus an energy meter.
Main effects of electric current
(a)magnetic effect
(b) chemical effect
(c) heating effect

Assignment 1
1. List ten applications each of the three
main effects of electric current.
2. What are electric fuses and how are rated?
.
 Resistance and Resistivity
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on
the
(a)Length of the conductor,
(b)Cross-sectional area of the conductor,
(c)Type of material and
(d)Temperature of the material.

The constant of proportionality is known as the

resistivity of the material and is given the symbol
ρ (Greek rho).
Thus;
R = ρl/a Ohms.
• What happens to the resistance
of a material when its
temperature increases?
 temperature coefficient of
resistance
• The temperature coefficient of resistance
of a material is the increase in the
resistance of a 1 Ω resistor of that material
when it is subjected to a rise of
◦
temperature of 1 C.
• The symbol used for the temperature
coefficient of resistance is α (Greek alpha).
• How do you determine the temperature of
a material at a given temperature?
Analyzing Electrical Circuits?
 Network Analysis
Solving for all voltages and currents in the
network elements. Two approaches
• 1. Direct methods; determine the different
voltages and current in its original form;
Kirchhoff's laws, loop analysis, Nodal analysis,
superposition etc
• 2. Network reduction method; for complicated
circuits, original network is converted into more
simpler equivalent circuits and solved using
Norton’s theorem, Thevenins theorems etc
Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Born 12 March 1812 in
Konigsberg, Prussia.
• Died 17 October 1887 in
Berlin
• German physicist
contributed to electrical
circuits
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• The sum of currents entering a node
equals the sum of currents leaving the
node.
• The algebraic sum of all currents at any
node in a circuit equals zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• The algebraic sum of all the voltages
around any closed path in a circuit equals
zero
• The sum of voltage rise around a loop
equals the sum of drop around the same
loop
 Series circuits

In a series circuit

(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit

(b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the
total applied voltage, V,
 Potential Divider

• A potential divider is the simplest way of

producing a source of lower e.m.f. from a
source of higher e.m.f.
 Parallel Networks
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents is
equal to the total circuit current,
i.e I = I1 + I2 + I3
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is
the same across each of the
resistors.
 Network Analysis
Series Circuits:
• Voltage drops add to equal total voltage.
• All components share the same (equal) current.
• Resistances add to equal total resistance.
Parallel Circuits:
• All components share the same (equal) voltage.
• Branch currents add to equal total current.
• Resistances diminish to equal total resistance.
 Mesh current analysis
• The Mesh Current Method, also known as
the Loop Current Method, uses
simultaneous equations, Kirchhoff ’s
Voltage Law, and Ohm’s Law to determine
unknown currents in a network.
 Mesh current analysis (2)
• Loop; A closed path in a circuit in which
no element or node is encountered more
than once
• Mesh; It is a loop that contains no other
loop within it.
 Mesh current analysis
Steps to follow for the “Mesh Current” method of analysis:
1. Draw mesh currents in loops of circuit, enough to account for all
components.
2. Label resistor voltage drop polarities based on assumed directions of
mesh currents.
3. Write KVL equations for each loop of the circuit, substituting the
product IR for E in each resistor term of the equation. Where two
mesh currents intersect through a component, express the current as
the algebraic sum of those two mesh currents (i.e. I + I) if the currents

1
2
go in the same direction through that component. If not, express the
current as the difference (i.e. I - I).
1
2
4. Solve for unknown mesh currents (simultaneous equations).
5. If any solution is negative, then the assumed current direction is
wrong!
6. Algebraically add mesh currents to find current in components
sharing multiple mesh currents.
7. Solve for voltage drops across all resistors (E=IR).
 Node Voltage Method
• The node voltage method of analysis
solves for unknown voltages at circuit
nodes in terms of a system of KCL
equations
 Node voltage rules:
• Convert voltage sources in series with a resistor to an equivalent current source
with the resistor in parallel.
• Change resistor values to conductances.
• Select a reference node(E)

0
• Assign unknown voltages (E)(E) ... (E)to remaining nodes.

1
N
• Write a KCL equation for each node 1,2, ... N. The positive coefficient of the first

2
voltage in the first equation is the sum of conductances connected to the node.
The coefficient for the second voltage in the second equation is the sum of
conductances connected to that node. Repeat for coefficient of third voltage,
third equation, and other equations. These coefficients fall on a diagonal.
• All other coefficients for all equations are negative, representing conductances
between nodes. The first equation, second coefficient is the conductance from
node 1 to node 2, the third coefficient is the conductance from node 1 to node
3. Fill in negative coefficients for other equations.
• The right hand side of the equations is the current source connected to the
respective nodes.
• Solve system of equations for unknown node voltages.
Introduction to Network
Theorems
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is
possible to simplify any linear circuit, no
matter how complex, to an equivalent
circuit with just a single voltage source
and series resistance connected to a load.
• Thevenin’s Theorem is a way to reduce a
network to an equivalent circuit
composed of a single voltage source,
series resistance, and series load.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
Steps:
1. Find the Thevenin source voltage by removing the load
resistor from the original circuit and calculating voltage
across the open connection points where the load resistor
used to be.
2. Find the Thevenin resistance by removing all power
sources in the original circuit (voltage sources shorted and
current sources open) and calculating total resistance
between the open connection points.
3. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin
voltage source in series with the Thevenin resistance. The
load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of
the equivalent circuit.
4. Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following
the rules for series circuits.
 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible
to simplify any linear circuit, no matter
how complex, to an equivalent circuit with
just a single current source and parallel
resistance connected to a load.
• Norton’s Theorem is a way to reduce a
network to an equivalent circuit composed
of a single current source, parallel
resistance, and parallel load.
 Norton’s Theorem
• Steps to follow for Norton’s Theorem:
1. (1) Find the Norton source current by removing the load
resistor from the original circuit and calculating current
through a short (wire) jumping across the open connection
points where the load resistor used to be.
2. (2) Find the Norton resistance by removing all power
sources in the original circuit (voltage sources shorted and
current sources open) and calculating total resistance
between the open connection points.
3. (3) Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton
current source in parallel with the Norton resistance. The
load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of
the equivalent circuit.
4. (4) Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor
following the rules for parallel circuits.
 Superposition Theorem
• The Superposition Theorem states that a
circuit can be analyzed with only one
source of power at a time, the
corresponding component voltages and
currents algebraically added to find out
what they’ll do with all power sources in
effect.
• To negate all but one power source for
analysis, replace any source of voltage
(batteries) with a wire; replace any current
source with an open (break).
 Superposition Theorem
• eliminate all but one source of power within a
network at a time,
• using series/parallel analysis to determine voltage
drops (and/or currents) within the modified
network for each power source separately.
• voltage drops and/or currents have been
determined for each power source working
separately, the values are all “superimposed” on top
of each other (added algebraically) to find the
actual voltage drops/currents with all sources
active.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states
that the maximum amount of power will be
dissipated by a load resistance if it is equal to
the Thevenin or Norton resistance of the
network supplying power.
 EET - 219
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

PART-II
Electrostatic
 Electrostatic field
• Coulomb’s law :
The force of attraction or repulsion
between two electrically charged bodies is
proportional to the magnitude of their
charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance separating them
 CAPACITORS
• a capacitor consists of two plates which
are separated by an insulating material
known as a dielectric.
• A capacitor has the ability to store a
quantity of static electricity..
 CAPACITANCE
• The property of this pair of plates which
determines how much charge
corresponds to a given p.d. between the
plates

• The charge Q stored in a capacitor is

given by:
 Energy stored in capacitors
• The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is
given by
•
 Types of capacitor
1. Variable air capacitors. Used in radio and electronic circuits.
The maximum value of such capacitors is between 500 pF
and 1000 pF.
2. Mica capacitors. Capacitance is stable and less likely to
change with age. used in high frequency circuits with fixed
values of capacitance up to about 1000 pF.
3. Paper capacitors. Maximum value between 500 pF and 10
μF. Disadvantages of paper capacitors include variation in
capacitance with temperature change and a shorter
service life than most other types of capacitor.
4. Plastic capacitors. Very long service life and high reliability.

5. Electrolytic capacitors: must always be used on d.c. and

must be connected with the correct polarity.
 Magnetic circuits
Magnets have many varied practical
applications.
• motors and generators,
• telephones,
• relays,
• loudspeakers,
• computer hard drives and floppy disks,
• anti-lock brakes,
• electronic ignition systems, etc
Magnet
• Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic
field (or the number of lines of force)
produced by a magnetic source (weber,
Wb)
• Magnetic flux density is the amount of
flux passing through a defined area that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:
• Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) is the cause of the
existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.

• Magnetic field strength (or magnetising force),

• Reluctance S (or RM) is the ‘magnetic resistance’

of a magnetic circuit to the presence of magnetic
flux.
Magnetisation/B–H curve
• for air, or any non-magnetic medium, the
ratio

permeability of free space

• For all media other than free space

• Where μr is the relative permeability

 Electromagnetism
• Magnetic field are produced by electric currents
• The magnetic field around a solenoid is similar
to a magnet
 The screw rule

• the screw rule states that:

If a normal right-hand thread screw is screwed
along the conductor in the direction of the
current, the direction of rotation of the screw
is in the direction of the magnetic field.
 The grip rule
• states that if the coil is gripped with the
right hand, with the fingers pointing in
the direction of the current, then the
thumb, outstretched parallel to the axis
of the solenoid, points in the direction of
the magnetic field inside the
solenoid.
 ASSIGNMENT
EXPLAIN THE WORKING PRINCIPLES OF
THE FOLLOWING ELECTRICAL DEVICES
1. ELECTRIC BELL
2. TELEPHONE RECIEVER
3. ELECTRIC RELAY
4. LOUD SPEAKER
• ELECTROMAGNETISM
CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT
IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
• Experiences a FORCE
• The direction of the force can be pre-determined
by using Fleming’s left-hand rule

• Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of

the left
hand be extended such that they are all at right-
angles
to each other, If the first finger points in the
direction of the magnetic field, the second finger
points in the direction of the current, then the
thumb will point in the direction of the motion
of the conductor.
Fleming’s left-hand rule
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• When a conductor is moved across a

magnetic field so as to cut through the
lines of force (or flux), an electromotive
force (e.m.f.) is produced in the conductor.
 Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction
• FARADAY’S LAWS of electromagnetic
induction state:

(i) An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the

magnetic field linking that circuit changes.

(ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in

any circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux linking the
circuit.
 Lenz’s law states:
• The direction of an induced e.m.f. is
always such that it tends to set up a
current opposing the motion or the
change of flux responsible for inducing
that e.m.f.
• Note; It is the relative movement of the
magnetic flux and the coil that causes an
e.m.f. and thus current, to be induced in
the coil
 induced e.m.f
• The induced e.m.f. E set up between the ends of
the conductor is given by:
E = Blv volts
• where B, the flux density, (teslas), l, the length
of conductor in the magnetic field, (metres) and
v, the conductor velocity, (metres per second.

◦
• If the conductor moves at an angle θ to the )
magnetic
◦
field (instead of at 90 as assumed above) then
E = Blv sin θ volts
 Inductance
Inductance is the name given to the property of a
circuit
whereby there is an e.m.f. induced into the circuit by
the
change of flux linkages produced by a current change.
When the e.m.f. is induced in the same circuit as
that in which the current is changing, the property is
called self inductance, L
When the e.m.f. is induced in a circuit by a change of
flux due to current changing in an adjacent circuit,
the property is called mutual inductance, M.
The unit of inductance is the henry, H.
• ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C.)
SIGNALS
 AC Signals
• Alternating Current (AC)
flows one way, then the
other way, continually
reversing direction.
• An AC voltage is
continually changing
between positive (+) and
negative (-). AC Signal from a Power Supply
• The rate of changing
direction is called the
frequency of the AC and • This shape of the AC
it is measured in hertz signal above is called
(Hz) which is the number ________
of forwards-backwards
cycles per second.
 AC Signals
• The frequency of the mains electricity in
Nigeria is ______.
• An AC supply is suitable for powering
some devices such as ________ and
_______ but almost all electronic circuits
require a steady _______ supply.
 Period, T

The time that it takes for a

sine wave to complete one
full cycle. This can be
measured by finding the
times at which the signal
crosses zero (need two zero
crossings). The unit usually
used is seconds (s).

An alternative way to
measure the period is to
t1 t2 determine the time required
for the sine wave return to
the same maximum or
1
T  t 2  t1 
minimum value. s  16 . 7 ms
60
 Frequency, f
• The number of cycles a sine wave will
complete in one second(fractions are okay).
The unit is cycles/second or Hertz (Hz).
1
f 
– The longer the period, the lower the frequency
is. T
– The shorter the period, the higher the
frequency is.
1 1
f    60 Hz
T 16 . 7 ms
 Electric Utilities
Standardization on the frequency of the
electricity distribution systems didn’t occur
until the mid-1900’s.
The frequency of the ac voltage supplied by power
companies in the US is 60 Hz.
The frequency used in much of Europe and Asia is
50 Hz.
Will a device or an appliance function when
connected to a power supply operating at either
frequency?
Some devices will function properly while some
others will not because they are designed for a
specific frequency. This is one reason why power
adaptors are needed when you travel.
 Angular frequency
• Motors are used in the alternators in coal-
and gas-powered electric generation
stations. One full rotation of the motor
shaft produces one complete cycle of the
ac electricity produced.
– Position of the motor shaft is measured in
radians (rad) or degrees (o).
2
• 1 rad = 57.3o   2 f 
T
• 2 rad = 360o
f  60 Hz   377 rad/s
 Amplitude
Peak amplitude Peak-to-Peak amplitude

V pp  2V p
I pp
 2I p
 Instantaneous Value
• Instantaneous value or amplitude is the
magnitude of the sinusoid at a point in
time.
v ( t)  5V sin[( 377 rad / s ) t ]

t  0s v ( t)  5V sin[( 377 rad / s )( 0 s )]  0V

t  10 ms v ( t)  5V sin[( 377 rad / s )( 0 . 01 s )]  2 . 94 V
 Average Value

• The average value of

a sinusoid signal is
the integral of the
sine wave over one
full cycle. This is
always equal to zero.
– If the average of an
ac signal is not zero,
then there is a dc
component known
as a DC offset.
 Root Mean Square (RMS)
• Most equipment that measure the
amplitude of a sinusoidal signal displays
the results as a root mean square value.
This is signified by the unit Vac or VRMS.
– RMS voltage and current are used to calculate the
average power associated with the voltage or current
signal in one cycle.

2
T V RMS  Vp  0 . 707 V p
1
  2
2
V RMS v ( t )  dt
T  V RMS
2
0 P Ave  R
 Phase Angle
• The phase angle is an angular
measurement of the position of one
sinusoid signal with respect to a reference.
– The signal and reference must have the same
frequency.
 Calculation of Phase
• Suppose there are three signals
– One signal is the reference
• I have chosen the reference to be the signal in
blue on the following slide
– The phase of the other two signals will be
calculated with respect to the reference
signal.
• The period of each signal should be the same,
which means that all signals have the same
frequency.
 6

2
Voltage (V)

0 Signal 1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Signal 2
Signal 3
-2
Time (seconds)

-4

-6

-8
 Example #1
• Calculate the period, T, for the reference
signal
– This is the time for a full cycle to be completed.
• T= 500 second for Signal 1
– Calculate the difference in time between zero
crossings of
• Signal 2 and Signal 1: t = 40 second – 0 seconds =
40 s
• Signal 3 and Signal 1: t = 480 seconds – 0
seconds= 480 s
 Example #1 (con’t)
• The sinusoidal function that describes
Signal 1, the reference voltage, is
V(t) = 5V sin (t) where   T = 12.6 mrad/s
• To write the sinusoidal function that
describes Signals 2 and 3, we need to
address the fact that there is a shift in the
zero crossings
V(t) = A sin (t + ) where   T
  2 t/T in radians or  = 360o t/T

•  is called the phase shift

 Lagging and Leading
• Don’t get fooled by the positions of the curves on the
graph!

• Signal 2: V(t) = 5V sin [12.6 mrad/s)t – ]

–  is -0.502 radians or -28.8 degrees
– Signal 2 lags Signal 1 as it reaches zero at a later time than
Signal 1

• Signal 3: V(t) = 5V sin [12.6 mrad/s)t + ]

–  is 0.251 radians or 14.4 degrees
– Signal 3 leads Signal 1 as it reaches zero at an earlier time than
Signal 1
 Formulas

v ( t)  V p sin( t   )
where  is in degrees and the
units for  are usually not
included.
 Formulas
AC signals are sinusoidal functions.
 The mathematical description of the sinusoid includes the peak
amplitude and the angular frequency and may include a phase angle.

sin( t  are
 Va psinusoid
v ( t )of ) 2
RMS values calculated
  2 f  using
the formula T

Phase angle for 1a sinusoid is calculated with

T

respect to 
V a reference.
 V RMS  0 . 707 V p
2
RMS
v ( t )  dt
T
A signal lags a reference when signal – reference < 0o.
0

It leads a reference when signal – reference > 0o.

• BATTERIES
 Introduction to Batteries
• Batteries consist of two or more voltaic cells
that are connected in series to provide a
steady dc voltage at the battery’s output
terminals.

• The voltage is produced by a chemical

reaction inside the cell. Electrodes are
immersed in an electrolyte, which forces the
electric charge to separate in the form of
ions and free electrons.
 The Voltaic Cell
(converts chemical energy into electric energy)

– A voltaic cell consists of two different metal electrodes

that are immersed in an electrolyte (an acid or a base).

– The chemical reaction resulting from the immersion

produces a separation of charges.

– The current capacity increases with large electrode

sizes.

– The negative terminal is considered the anode of the

cell because it forms positive ions in the electrolyte.
The opposite terminal of the cell is its cathode.
 The Voltaic Cell

• Motion of electrons in
ionic bonding can be
used to generate an
electric current
• A device constructed to
do just this is called a
voltaic cell, or cell for
short
 Introduction to Batteries
• A battery’s voltage output and current rating
are determined by
• The elements used for the electrodes.
• The size of the electrodes.
• The type of electrolyte used.
 Introduction to Batteries
• Cells and batteries are available in a wide variety of types.

Typical dry cells and batteries. These primary types cannot be recharged.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Introduction to Batteries
– Whether a battery may be recharged or not
depends on the cells used to make up the
battery.
– A primary cell cannot be recharged because the
internal chemical reaction cannot be restored.
– A secondary cell, or storage cell, can be
recharged because its chemical reaction is
reversible.
– Dry cells have a moist electrolyte that cannot be
spilled.
– Sealed rechargeable cells are secondary cells
that contain a sealed electrolyte that cannot be
refilled.
 Common Types
of Primary Cells
– There are several different types of primary
cells in use today:
• Carbon-zinc dry cells.
• Alkaline cells.
• Zinc chloride cells.
• Mercury cells.
• Silver oxide cells.
 Common Types
of Primary Cells
• Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell
– This is one of the most popular primary cells
(often used for type AAA, AA, C, D).
– The negative electrode is made of zinc.
– The positive electrode is made of carbon.
– The output voltage of a single cell is about
1.5 V.
– Performance of the cell is better with
intermittent operation.
 Common Types
of Primary Cells
• Alkaline Cells
– The alkaline cell is another popular type also
used for type AA, C, D, etc.
– It has the same 1.5V output as carbon-zinc
cells, but they are longer-lasting.
– It consists of a zinc anode and manganese
dioxide cathode in an alkaline electrolyte
(potassium hydroxide).
– It works with high efficiency even with
continuous use, due to low internal resistance.
 Common Types
of Primary Cells
• Zinc Chloride Cells
– This cell is also referred to as a “heavy-duty”
type battery.
– It is a modified zinc-carbon cell.
– It has little chance of liquid leakage because
the cell consumes water along with the
chemically active materials. The cell is usually
dry at the end of its useful life.
 Common Types
of Primary Cells
• Mercury Cells:
– This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound
cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide
electrolyte.
– It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards
associated with proper disposal of mercury.
• Silver Oxide Cells:
– This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide
cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide
electrolyte.
– It is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.
– Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and
watches.
 Common Types
of Primary Cells
• Lithium Cells:
– This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf
life, low weight, and small volume.
– It comes in two forms of 3V output in
widespread use:
• Lithium-sulfur dioxide (LiSO2).
• Lithium-thionyl chloride.
– LiSO2-type batteries contain methyl cyanide
liquid solvent; if its container is punctured or
cracked, it can release toxic vapors.
• Safe disposal of these cells is critical.
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
– This cell is a widely applied type of secondary
cell, used extensively in vehicles and other
applications requiring high values of load
current.
– The positive electrode is made of lead peroxide.
– The negative electrode is made of spongy lead
metal.
– The electrolyte is sulfuric acid.
– The output is about 2.1 volts per cell.
– Cells are typically used in series combinations of
3 (6-V battery) or 6 (12-V battery).
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
• The secondary batteries used in vehicles
have a reversible chemical process.
Discharge: The battery reacts by producing
current flow in an external load circuit and
produces lead sulfate and water.
D
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
C
Charge: The battery reacts to a reverse current from
an external energy source and produces lead, lead
peroxide, and sulfuric acid.
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
• Current Ratings
– Lead-acid batteries are rated in terms of how
much discharge current they can supply for a
specified amount of time.

– The A•h unit is amperes-hours. Generally, this

rating is proportional to the physical size.
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell

– An automobile battery might have a 200 A•h rating.

How long can this battery supply 20 amperes?

Capacity 200 A•h

Time = = = 10 hours
Load current 20 A

– The actual ampere-hours delivered varies with

battery age and condition, temperature and
discharge rate.
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
• Specific Gravity
– Specific gravity is a ratio that compares the
weight of a substance with the weight of
water.

– The states of discharge (how much charge

the battery has left) is checked by measuring
the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
One cell of an automobile battery.

Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
• Charging Lead-Acid Batteries
– Apply about 2.5 V per cell.
– Attach the terminal of a battery charger
directly to the corresponding terminals of the
battery.
• Positive terminal to positive terminal.
• Negative terminal to negative terminal.
– This process restores the battery’s ability to
deliver current and voltage to a load.
 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
• Charging an Automobile Battery (one cell
shown).
Charger
produces 2.5 V
(about 15 V for a charge As the cell
12 V battery) discharges, more
water is formed,

Pb PbO2
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.

H 2SO4 + H 2O
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Cells and
Batteries
– This type of cell delivers high current.
– It can be recharged many times.
– It can be stored for long periods of time.
– Applications include
• Portable power tools.
• Alarm systems.
• Portable radio and TV equipment.
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Cells and Batteries

D
2 Ni(OH) 3 + Cd 2 Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH) 2
C

– The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH)

but does not appear above, as its function is to
act as a conductor for the transfer of the
hydroxyl (OH) ions.
– Its specific gravity does not change with the
state of charge.
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Cells
– These cells are used in applications demanding
long-running battery performance (e.g., high-end
portable electrical or electronic products like
power tools).
– They offer 40% more capacity over a comparably-
sized NiCd cell.
– They contain the same components as a NiCd cell,
except for the negative electrode.
– They are more expensive than NiCd cells, self-
discharge more rapidly, and cannot be cycled as
frequently as NiCd cells.
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Nickel-Iron (Edison) Cells
– These cells were once used in industrial truck
and railway applications.
– They are now almost obsolete due to lead-acid
batteries.
• Nickel-Zinc Cells
– These cells were previously used in some
railway applications.
– Their high energy density created interest in
their application to electric cars.
– They have limited life cycles for charging.
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Fuel Cells
– A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that
converts chemicals (such as hydrogen and
oxygen) into water and produces electricity in
the process.

– As long as the reactants (H and O) are

supplied to the fuel cell, it will continually
produce electricity and never go dead, unlike
conventional batteries.
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Fuel Cells
– Fuel cells using methanol and oxygen are
being developed.
– Fuel cells are used extensively in the space
program as sources of dc power.
– They are very efficient; capable of providing
hundreds of kilowatts of power.
 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
• Solar Cells
– Solar cells convert the sun’s light energy into
electric energy.

– They are made of semiconductor materials.

– They are arranged in modules that are

assembled into a large solar array to produce
the required power.
 Series and Parallel
Connected Cells
• An applied voltage higher than the voltage of
one cell can be obtained by connecting cells in
series.
• The total voltage available across the battery of
cells is equal to the sum of the individual values
for each cell.
• Parallel cells have the same voltage as one cell
but have more current capacity.
• To provide a higher output voltage and more
current capacity, cells can be connected in
series-parallel combinations.
• The combination of cells is called a battery.
 Series and Parallel
Connected Cells

The current capacity of a battery

with cells in series is the same as
that for one cell because the
same current flows through all
series cells.
Cells connected in series for higher voltage. Current rating is the same as for one cell. (a) Wiring.
(b) Schematic symbol for battery with three series cells. (c) Battery connected to lead resistance
RL.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Series and Parallel
Connected Cells

The parallel connection is

equivalent to increasing the
size of the electrodes and
electrolyte, which increases
the current capacity.

Cells connected in parallel for higher current rating. (a) Wiring. (b) Schematic symbol for battery
with three parallel cells. (c) Battery connected to lead resistance RL.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
 Series and Parallel
Connected Cells

To provide a higher output voltage and more current capacity, cells can
be connected in series-parallel combination.
Cells connected in series-parallel combinations. (a) Wiring two 3-V strings, each with two 1.5-V
cells in series. (b) Wiring two 3-v strings in parallel.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Series and Parallel
Connected Cells

cont. (c) Schematic symbol for the battery in (b) with output of 3 V. (d) Equivalent battery
connected to lead resistance RL.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Current Drain Depends
on Load Resistance
• It is important to note the current rating
of batteries, or any voltage source, is only
a guide to typical values permissible for
normal service life.
• The actual amount of current produced
when the battery is connected to a load
resistance is equal to:
I = V/R by Ohm’s law.