ENSC 324

Electronic Devices

Week 1 - September 7, 2023

Lecture #1: Crystallography
1
Introducing myself
• My name: Matthew Shawn Sederberg
• A bit about my background:
• BSc, PhD @ University of Alberta
• Postdoctoral fellow @ Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Munich, Germany
• Research associate @ University of Ottawa & National Research Council Canada
• I’ve been at SFU since Nov. 2021
• I am a Research Faculty Member in Engineering Science
• I currently teach ENSC 324 and ENSC 470
• My background is in engineering physics
• Lasers, optics, and photonics

2
My research area
• As we will see in this course, the currents that give electronic devices their active character arise
from “excess minority charge carriers”

• The bandwidth at which we can modulate current signals is limited by the bandwidth at which
these minority charge carriers can be controlled. This is presently limited by the bandwidth
supported by copper conductors and charge carrier transport in semiconductors.

• My research area is called ultrafast optics. We use the shortest controllable events that have ever
been produced to answer a number of di erent research questions. These “events” are actually
laser pulses that last just femtoseconds (1 fs = 10-15 s).

• One thing we can use them to do is control excess charge carriers on femtosecond timescales.
We create “movies” of what charges are doing in materials and devices on these timescales,
with the ultimate goal of speeding up classical information processing to bandwidths on the
order of 100 THz - 1 PHz
• If you are an engineering physics student and are looking for a thesis project or a co-op term,
come talk to me!
• If you’re interested in lasers/optics and have thought about graduate studies, come talk to me!
3
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Welcome to ENSC 324!
• The core circuitry/electronics courses o ered in ENSC:
• ENSC 220 - Electric circuits I
• ENSC 320 - Electric circuits II
• ENSC 225 - Microelectronics I
• ENSC 325 - Microelectronics II
• ENSC 324 - Electronic devices
• ENSC 425 - Electronic system design
• ENSC 426 - High frequency electronics

4
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Welcome to ENSC 324!
• Here are a few equations related to pn junctions that might look familiar from ENSC 225
" ! # v" # " #
u
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Va u 2"s Vbi Na + Nd e
t
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ID = Is exp 1 W = · 2 2
Vbi = (Nd xn + Na xp )
Vt e Na Nd 2"s

• Where does the ideal diode equation come from?

• Have you ever wondered why the built-in voltage of a pn junction is 0.7 V?
• Would you like to see how quantum mechanics and Ohm’s Law are connected?
• These are the kinds of questions we will address in this course!

5
 Welcome to ENSC 324!

• Most of the courses listed earlier progress towards the design and analysis of circuits with
increasing complexity and more advanced functionality
• ENSC 324 kind of moves in the opposite direction! In this course, we will build a deeper
understanding of how active electronic components such as pn junctions, BJTs, and MOSFETs
operate
• We will build a connection between fundamental physical theories and the current-voltage
relationships that describe the operation of the aforementioned devices
• Basically, we’re learning about the physical principles that enabled the modern information age

6
 Acknowledgements

• As I rst began preparing content for this

course, I received useful information and
previous content from Prof. Bonnie Gray and
Prof. Ash Parameswaran
• I have mainly followed along with the text book
and I will borrow gures from the textbook
throughout the course.

7
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Weekly schedule
• There is no lab component!
• We will meet in this class every Tuesday and Thursday from 8:30 am - 10:20 am
• 4 contact hours: 3 lecture hours and 1 tutorial hour
• During each session, we will (roughly) follow the schedule below:
• A 70-minute lecture presentation of the course material.
• A 10-minute break. Feel free to ask questions about anything related to the course during this
time, grab a co ee, etc.
• A 30-minute tutorial period during which I will solve example problems.
• Attendance is recommended!
• I will record the lectures, but you will need to send me an email if you wish to access them
• The purpose of the recordings is to help you to catch up with the course material in case you are sick,
have a personal emergency, or are just really busy
• If it becomes clear that the recordings are being widely distributed, it will become more di cult to
access them
• Lecture slides will be provided before each session
• Complete solutions to all of the tutorial questions will be made available at the end of each week
8
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Syllabus

9
What is a semiconductor?
• Metals have free electrons that readily conduct current
• Au, Ag, Cu, Al, etc
• Although dielectrics have valence electrons, they do not normally reside in a “conduction band”
that allows them to conduct current
• Dielectrics are characterized by a large “bandgap energy”
• Examples: SiO2 (~9 eV), Si3N4 (~5 eV), CaF2 (~12 eV), MgO (~7.8 eV), LiF (~14.5 eV)
• The conductivity of a semiconductor can be controlled either during its manufacturing process or
by an external stimulus. It can behave as either an insulator or as a conductor depending on these
conditions.
• Semiconductors have a bandgap energy that is su ciently large that electrons are not easily
thermally excited into the conduction band, but small enough that an applied voltage or
visible light can introduce a conduction band population, modulating its conductivity
• Typical bandgap energies of semiconductors are between 0.5 - 3 eV
• Examples: Si (1.1 eV), Ge (0.74 eV), GaAs (1.52 eV), ZnSe (2.70 eV), GaP (2.32 eV)
• In order to understand why di erent solids have di erent electrical properties, we’ll begin by
reviewing how electrons are arranged in each atom
10
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Starting from the beginning
• Recall that all solids are made up of atoms
1 2
H
Hydrogen
II III IV V VI He
Helium
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Atomic Number 6
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium
6.94
Beryllium
9.012
Name
Symbol
C
Carbon
Boron
10.81
Carbon
12.011
Nitrogen
14.007
Oxygen
15.999
Fluorine
18.998
Neon
20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Average Atomic Mass 12.011
Na Mg Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
Sodium Magnesium
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.085 30.974 32.06 35.45 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr Mn Fe
Chromium Manganese Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn Ga Ge As
Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.630 74.922 78.97 79.904 83.798
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 53 54
Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb Mo Tc
Niobium Molybdenum Technetium
Ru Rh Pd
Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium
Ag
Silver
Cd
Cadmium
In
Indium
Sn Sb
Tin Antimony
Te
Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe
Xenon
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.95 [97] 101.07 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.414 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.293
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs
Cesium
Ba
Barium 57 - 70
Lu
Lutetium
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re Os
Rhenium Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au
Gold
Hg
Mercury
Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
132.905 137.327 174.967 178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.084 196.997 200.592 204.38 207.2 208.980 [209] [210] [222]

87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
Lr
89 - 102 Lawrencium
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs
Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium
Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh
Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium
Fl
Flerovium
Mc
Moscovium
Lv Ts
Livermorium Tennessine
Og
Oganesson
[223] [226] [262] [267] [270] [269] [270] [270] [278] [281] [281] [285] [286] [289] [289] [293] [293] [294]

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
*Lanthanide series La
Lanthanum
Ce
Cerium
Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb
Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium
Dy Ho
Dysprosium Holmium
Er
Erbium
Tm Yb
Thulium Ytterbium
138.905 140.116 140.908 144.242 [145] 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.500 164.930 167.259 168.934 173.045

**Actinide series 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
Actinium
[227]
Thorium
232.038
Protactinium
231.036
Uranium
238.029
Neptunium
[237]
Plutonium
[244]
Americium
[243]
Curium
[247]
Berkelium
[247]
Californium
[251]
Einsteinium
[252]
Fermium
[257]
Mendelevium
[258]
Nobelium
[259] wikipedia.org

11
 The electronic structure of silicon
5 6 7
• As an example, let’s look at silicon
B
• Silicon has an atomic number of 14, so it contains 14 electrons and
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitro
14 protons
10.81 12.011 14
• It also has 14, 15, 16, 17, or 18 neutrons
• 14 neutrons is the most common isotope 13 14 1
nucleus of the atom Al
• The protons and neutrons are closely bound together and form the

Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosp
• Although protons carry a positive charge, they are immobile and do
not contribute to currents in electronic devices 26.982 28.085 30
• Although each electron is identical, the state of each electron within
the27 28
atom is di erent 29 30 31 32 3
e Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn Ga Ge A
• This is a fundamental requirement of quantum mechanics (yes,
we do need to talk about this a little bit!)
Zinc Gallium Germanium Arse
845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.630 74
12
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Quantum numbers
• Does the following notation look familiar?
• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
• This summarizes the electronic states that are occupied in a silicon
atom. Another way to do this is by using quantum numbers.
• Quantum numbers are used to classify the energy and orbital of
each electron within an atom
• The Principle Quantum Number, n, is an integer
2 (1,2,3,4…) that tells us the quantum shell that the
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1s electron is in. Greater values of n denote orbitals that are

further away from the nucleus
• The Azimuthal Quantum Number, l, determines the shape
of an orbital and its orbital angular momentum and takes
2
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1s on integer values between 0 and n-1. These sub-shells

are assigned letters: s (l = 0), p (l = 1), d (l = 2), f (l = 3)
• The Magnetic Quantum Number, ml, describes the
2 number of energy levels available for each Azimuthal
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1s Quantum Number. There are 2l + 1 magnetic quantum

numbers.
• The Spin Quantum Number, ms, takes on values of +1/2
and -1/2. The electron spin enables two electrons to ll
each orbital
13
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 The Aufbau (“building up”) principle
5 6 7
• Although there are (in principle) an in nite number of states that electrons
can occupy in an atom, in reality, they will occupy the set of states that
minimizes the energy of the system. This is just a universal tendency in
Boron
B C
Carbon
N
Nitr
nature.
10.81
• An electron will occupy the orbital or state with the lowest combination of n, l, 12.011 14
and ml values, in that order
• Let’s begin with the rst electron. It will go into the n = 1 shell
13 14 1
•
•
There is only one azimuthal quantum number for n = 1: l = 0 or the s sub-shell
There is 2l + 1 = 1 energy level available in the s sub-shell
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosp
• Two electrons with di erent spin quantum numbers can exist in this energy level
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28.085 30
• Now, the n = 1 shell has been lled. So far, we have: 1s
6 • 27 28 29
The next electrons will go into the n = 2 shell 30 31 32 3
e •
Co Ni Cu Zn1s 2s Ga Ge A
Now, there are two azimuthal quantum numbers: l = 0 and l = 1
2
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• For l = 0, we have the same situation as for n = 1: 2s

2 2Gallium Germanium Ars
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n • Cobalt
Putting Nickel
these together, Copper
we’ve now found Zinc
places for 4 electrons:
845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.630 74
14
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 The Aufbau (“building up”) principle
5 6 7
B C N
• For l = 1 (p), we have 2l + 1 = 3 magnetic quantum numbers, each of
which can hold two electrons. So, the p sub-shell holds 6 electrons
6
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• We write: 2p Boron Carbon Nitrog

2 2 6
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• Altogether we have now accounted for 10 electrons: 1s 2s 2p10.81 12.011 14.0

• We can now move up to n = 3, for which we have l = 0, 1, and 2
13 14 15
• Same routine for l = 0:
2
Al Si P
<latexit sha1_base64="2pAiAM4IsuA40W4wTweawcVj0+0=">AAAB63icdVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKexGUY8BL3qLYB6QrGF2MpsMmZldZnqFEPILXjwo4tUf8ubfuJtEiK+ChqKqm+6uIJbCout+OLml5ZXVtfx6YWNza3unuLvXsFFiGK+zSEamFVDLpdC8jgIlb8WGUxVI3gyGl5nfvOfGikjf4ijmvqJ9LULBKGbSib2rdIslr+xOQdxf5MsqwRy1bvG904tYorhGJqm1bc+N0R9Tg4JJPil0Estjyoa0z9sp1VRx64+nt07IUar0SBiZtDSSqbo4MabK2pEK0k5FcWB/epn4l9dOMLzwx0LHCXLNZovCRBKMSPY46QnDGcpRSigzIr2VsAE1lGEaT2ExhP9Jo1L2zsrezWmpej2PIw8HcAjH4ME5VOEKalAHBgN4gCd4dpTz6Lw4r7PWnDOf2YdvcN4+AXxxjeY=</latexit>

• 3s
2
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• Now, we only have two electrons left for l = 1, so we write: 3p

Aluminum Silicon Phospho
• Altogether, the manner in which electronic orbitals are lled in a26.982
silicon 28.085 30.9
atom is summarized as:
27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As
2 2 6 2 2
<latexit sha1_base64="v9Hia48hP8vXaNTYU9QGkuK7t/s=">AAAB/XicdVDLSgMxFM3UV62v8bFzEyyCqzIzleqy4EZ3FewD2mnJpJk2NJMJSUaoQ/FX3LhQxK3/4c6/MdNWqK8Dl3s4517u5QSCUaUd58PKLS2vrK7l1wsbm1vbO/buXkPFicSkjmMWy1aAFGGUk7qmmpGWkARFASPNYHSR+c1bIhWN+Y0eC+JHaMBpSDHSRurZB67qel5Wolspm14WXa9nF92SMwV0fpEvqwjmqPXs904/xklEuMYMKdV2HaH9FElNMSOTQidRRCA8QgPSNpSjiCg/nX4/gcdG6cMwlqa4hlN1cSNFkVLjKDCTEdJD9dPLxL+8dqLDcz+lXCSacDw7FCYM6hhmUcA+lQRrNjYEYUnNrxAPkURYm8AKiyH8Txpeya2U3OvTYvVqHkceHIIjcAJccAaq4BLUQB1gcAcewBN4tu6tR+vFep2N5qz5zj74BuvtE8rPk4k=</latexit>

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

• Cobalt
The order in which the electronic states are lled can be less obvious
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsen
for atoms with a larger atomic number
5 58.933 58.693 63.546 15
65.38 69.723 72.630 74.9
fi
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Valence electrons and bonding
• The n = 1 and n = 2 shells are lled, meaning that these electrons do not
participate in forming bonds with other atoms. These electrons are referred
to as core electrons or inner shell electrons. 5 6 7
B C N
2 2 6 2 2
<latexit sha1_base64="v9Hia48hP8vXaNTYU9QGkuK7t/s=">AAAB/XicdVDLSgMxFM3UV62v8bFzEyyCqzIzleqy4EZ3FewD2mnJpJk2NJMJSUaoQ/FX3LhQxK3/4c6/MdNWqK8Dl3s4517u5QSCUaUd58PKLS2vrK7l1wsbm1vbO/buXkPFicSkjmMWy1aAFGGUk7qmmpGWkARFASPNYHSR+c1bIhWN+Y0eC+JHaMBpSDHSRurZB67qel5Wolspm14WXa9nF92SMwV0fpEvqwjmqPXs904/xklEuMYMKdV2HaH9FElNMSOTQidRRCA8QgPSNpSjiCg/nX4/gcdG6cMwlqa4hlN1cSNFkVLjKDCTEdJD9dPLxL+8dqLDcz+lXCSacDw7FCYM6hhmUcA+lQRrNjYEYUnNrxAPkURYm8AKiyH8Txpeya2U3OvTYvVqHkceHIIjcAJccAaq4BLUQB1gcAcewBN4tu6tR+vFep2N5qz5zj74BuvtE8rPk4k=</latexit>

• The n = 3 shell is not lled and these electrons are referred to as valence 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
electrons. There are 4 valence electrons in silicon. These electrons can
form bonds with other atoms Boron Carbon Nitrog
• When silicon forms bonds with other atoms, it does so in a way that10.81
lls its 12.011 14.0
3p sub-shell.
e 13 14 15
<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phospho
e S e 26.982 28.085 30.9
<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Co Ni Cu
e
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Zn Ga Ge As
16
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From a single atom to a solid
• When many atoms form bonds with one another and the resulting assembly is rigid, we get a
solid.
• What determines how the atoms will be arranged in the solid? How does this in uence
its the electronic, optical, magnetic, mechanical and thermal properties?
• Solid-state physics aims to answer these questions and more by combining elements of
quantum mechanics, crystallography, and electromagnetism
• Consider carbon. It too has 4 valence electrons.
• Carbon is an incredibly versatile atom that inseparable from life as we know it
• Depending on the arrangement of its atoms, it can form the hardest material we know of
(diamond) or a relatively soft material (graphite) that can be used as a lubricant
• It can also form exotic nanostructures, such as carbon nanotubes and carbon fullerenes
• In the case of a perfect silicon crystal, each silicon atom will form bonds with 4 other
silicon atoms. Can you visualize what this would look like yet?
• In the main part of this lecture, we will consider crystallography and nd out the answer
17

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fl
 Types of bonds - ionic
• When atoms form bonds with one another, they
normally do so in a way that produces lled valence
shells
• Ionic bonds are conceptually simple
• NaCl is a typical example of a solid that
1 2
H
Hydrogen
He
Helium
1.008 4.003

exhibits ionic bonds

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Atomic Number 6
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium
6.94
Beryllium
9.012
Name
Symbol
C
Carbon
Boron
10.81
Carbon
12.011
Nitrogen
14.007
Oxygen
15.999
Fluorine
18.998
Neon
20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Average Atomic Mass 12.011
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
• Na is a Group I element with one valence electron Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.085 30.974 32.06 35.45 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr Mn Fe
Chromium Manganese Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn Ga Ge As
Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.630 74.922 78.97 79.904 83.798

• Cl is a Group VII element whose outer sub-shell is

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 53 54
Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb Mo Tc
Niobium Molybdenum Technetium
Ru Rh Pd
Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium
Ag
Silver
Cd
Cadmium
In
Indium
Sn Sb
Tin Antimony
Te
Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe
Xenon
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.95 [97] 101.07 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.414 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.293

one electron short of being full

55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs
Cesium
Ba
Barium 57 - 70
Lu
Lutetium
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re Os
Rhenium Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au
Gold
Hg
Mercury
Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
132.905 137.327 174.967 178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.084 196.997 200.592 204.38 207.2 208.980 [209] [210] [222]

87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
• Na gives its extra electron to Cl. Now they both have
Francium Radium 89 - 102 Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
[223] [226] [262] [267] [270] [269] [270] [270] [278] [281] [281] [285] [286] [289] [289] [293] [293] [294]

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

lled outer shells La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb

*Lanthanide series
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium
138.905 140.116 140.908 144.242 [145] 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.500 164.930 167.259 168.934 173.045

**Actinide series 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No

• Na becomes Na+
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium
[227] 232.038 231.036 238.029 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259]

• Cl becomes Cl-
• Attractive Coulombic forces keep the two ions
together 18
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Types of bonds - covalent
• Another type of bond is the covalent bond
• Si atoms in a crystal are held together by covalent bonds
• As we’ve seen, Si has 4 valence electrons and requires 4
additional electrons in order to ll its outer shell
• In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between atoms
• See cartoon on the right
• We can imagine that in order to share electrons with 4
other Si atoms, each Si atom would need to have 4 other
Si atoms that are its “nearest neighbours”
• Consider atoms on the surface of a Si wafer
• These have “dangling bonds” or extra electrons that are
available for forming new bonds
• We can see how, given enough time and a large supply
of individual Si atoms, we could grow an enormous
crystal
• Two other types of bonds can be found in solids are metallic
bonds and van der Waals bonds
19
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Degrees of crystallinity
• Solids can be characterized by the degree of order in
the spatial arrangement of their constituent atoms, or
their “degree of crystallinity”
• Single crystals, depicted in the cartoon to the right, are
perfectly ordered
• In a single crystal semiconductor, the atoms are arranged
periodically in a lattice
• The position of each atom is precisely de ned
• This means that each single crystal semiconductor,
regardless of when or where it was created, will have the
exact same structure and properties
• In general, the electrical properties of a single-crystal
semiconductor (or any other type of material) are better
than those found in versions of the material with imperfect
crystallinity

20
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Degrees of crystallinity
• In polycrystalline materials, periodicity in the arrangement
of atoms is present over many atoms
• However, the regions in which well-de ned order is
present, called grains, are limited in size
• In general, the solid will be composed of many grains, each
of which is a di erent size with a di erent crystal
orientation (more to come on this…)
• The interface between adjacent grains is called a grain
boundary

• In amorphous materials, grains are virtually non-existent

• Order only exists over length scales of a few atoms
• Basically, the arrangement of the atoms is random

21
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 Unit cells and primitive cells
• In this course, we will assume that every
material is a perfect single crystal
• A unit cell is de ned as any microscopic (i.e., on
the scale of ~several atoms) volume of the solid
that, when repeated periodically throughout
space, reproduces the crystal perfectly
• Note that even for crystals with the simplest
geometry, there are many possible unit cells
• See gure to the right

• A primitive cell is the smallest possible unit cell

• Which of the unit cells on the right are
primitive cells?

22
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Bravais lattice
• Stacking the unit or primitive cell enables the entire crystal to be
constructed
• The arrangement in which the unit or primitive cell is repeated is
called a lattice
• There are 14 unique crystal lattices, known as Bravais lattices
• The Bravais lattice can be thought of as a mathematical tool that
clearly de nes the arrangement of atoms in a solid
• It can be de ned as a set of discrete points with position vectors
of the form:
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r̄ = pā + q b̄ + sc̄ <latexit sha1_base64="8UqvSC2kCwltP3Py3eQuH9BRSSQ=">AAAB+nicbZDLSsNAFIZPvNZ6S3XpZrAILkpJRNRlwY3uKtgLtKFMppN26GQSZiZKiXkUNy4UceuTuPNtnKZZaOsPAx//OYdz5vdjzpR2nG9rZXVtfWOztFXe3tnd27crB20VJZLQFol4JLs+VpQzQVuaaU67saQ49Dnt+JPrWb3zQKVikbjX05h6IR4JFjCCtbEGdqXvY5nirIZy8LPawK46dScXWga3gCoUag7sr/4wIklIhSYcK9VznVh7KZaaEU6zcj9RNMZkgke0Z1DgkCovzU/P0IlxhiiIpHlCo9z9PZHiUKlp6JvOEOuxWqzNzP9qvUQHV17KRJxoKsh8UZBwpCM0ywENmaRE86kBTCQztyIyxhITbdIqmxDcxS8vQ/us7l7U3bvzauO2iKMER3AMp+DCJTTgBprQAgKP8Ayv8GY9WS/Wu/Uxb12xiplD+CPr8we8GZOv</latexit>

• Here, are lattice vectors p, q, and s are integers and ā, b̄, and c̄
<latexit sha1_base64="gUaJiuiARON2+wAiUnqtRG+RKao=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O6W19Y3NrfJ2ZWd3b/+genjUNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNMbnO/88S1EbF6xGnC/YiOlAgFo2ilTj+gOmOzQbXm1t05yCrxClKDAs1B9as/jFkacYVMUmN6npugn1GNgkk+q/RTwxPKJnTEe5YqGnHjZ/NzZ+TMKkMSxtqWQjJXf09kNDJmGgW2M6I4NsteLv7n9VIMb/xMqCRFrthiUZhKgjHJfydDoTlDObWEMi3srYSNqaYMbUIVG4K3/PIqaV/Uvau693BZa9wXcZThBE7hHDy4hgbcQRNawGACz/AKb07ivDjvzseiteQUM8fwB87nD4gij7k=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="dX1wKJeQ2oCK3eFN8SJmmPOYWgY=">AAAB7HicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4KCURUY8FL3qrYNpCG8pmO2mXbjZxdyOU0t/gxYMiXv1B3vw3btsctPXBwOO9GWbmhang2rjut7Oyura+sVnYKm7v7O7tlw4OGzrJFEOfJSJRrZBqFFyib7gR2EoV0jgU2AyHN1O/+YRK80Q+mFGKQUz7kkecUWMlP62Qx0q3VHar7gxkmXg5KUOOerf01eklLItRGiao1m3PTU0wpspwJnBS7GQaU8qGtI9tSyWNUQfj2bETcmqVHokSZUsaMlN/T4xprPUoDm1nTM1AL3pT8T+vnZnoOhhzmWYGJZsvijJBTEKmn5MeV8iMGFlCmeL2VsIGVFFmbD5FG4K3+PIyaZxXvcuqd39Rrt3lcRTgGE7gDDy4ghrcQh18YMDhGV7hzZHOi/PufMxbV5x85gj+wPn8AdX/jhI=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="S1qAXfUOj1gdWrbNWhkCCAQJ2MY=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi95asB/QhrLZTtq1m03Y3Qgl9Bd48aCIV3+SN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRS8epYthksYhVJ6AaBZfYNNwI7CQKaRQIbAfj25nffkKleSwfzCRBP6JDyUPOqLFSQ/fLFbfqzkFWiZeTCuSo98tfvUHM0gilYYJq3fXcxPgZVYYzgdNSL9WYUDamQ+xaKmmE2s/mh07JmVUGJIyVLWnIXP09kdFI60kU2M6ImpFe9mbif143NeGNn3GZpAYlWywKU0FMTGZfkwFXyIyYWEKZ4vZWwkZUUWZsNiUbgrf88ippXVS9q6rXuKzU7vM4inACp3AOHlxDDe6gDk1ggPAMr/DmPDovzrvzsWgtOPnMMfyB8/kD4riNBA==</latexit>

• Just as there are many possible unit cells, there are many
possible combinations of vectors that form the basis of a Bravais
lattice. The shortest set of lattice vectors is called the primitive
vectors
• The unit cell and the Bravais lattice perfectly de ne the
single crystal
23
fi
fi
fi
 Simple cubic structure
• Let’s construct the simplest possible crystal - the Simple Cubic structure
• We’ll begin with a single atom, way down at the bottom:

24
 Simple cubic structure
• We can repeat the atom along one primitive vector

25
 Simple cubic structure
• We can then repeat the line of atoms along the second primitive vector

26
 Simple cubic structure
• Finally, we can repeat the plane of atoms along the third primitive vector

27
 Simple cubic structure
• The simple cubic structure has a cubic primitive
cell, with one atom or one lattice point at each of
its corners
• Although it has the simplest geometry, it is
relatively rare
• It has a low packing e ciency (density) and a
low number of nearest neighbours
• These tend to make solids unstable
• Example: Polonium (extremely radioactive)
• Nevertheless, we can consider the lattice vector for
this structure: <latexit sha1_base64="/tPcKN/wVxuD/wVASZyGmKEgklo=">AAACC3icbZDLSsNAFIZPvNZ6i7p0M7QIQqEkIupGKLjRXQV7gTaUyXTaDp1M4sxEKCF7N76KGxeKuPUF3Pk2TtMstPWHgY//nMOZ8/sRZ0o7zre1tLyyurZe2Chubm3v7Np7+00VxpLQBgl5KNs+VpQzQRuaaU7bkaQ48Dlt+eOrab31QKViobjTk4h6AR4KNmAEa2P17FLXxzKR6WWUAU4r9xn4aUVlQNKeXXaqTia0CG4OZchV79lf3X5I4oAKTThWquM6kfYSLDUjnKbFbqxohMkYD2nHoMABVV6S3ZKiI+P00SCU5gmNMvf3RIIDpSaBbzoDrEdqvjY1/6t1Yj248BImolhTQWaLBjFHOkTTYFCfSUo0nxjARDLzV0RGWGKiTXxFE4I7f/IiNE+q7lnVvT0t127yOApwCCU4BhfOoQbXUIcGEHiEZ3iFN+vJerHerY9Z65KVzxzAH1mfPwBtm68=</latexit>

r̄ = pā + q b̄ + sc̄
• We can see that the three primitive vectors have
the same orientations as a typical x, y, z Cartesian a
<latexit sha1_base64="JdvQKH+PnEc4Ykk4RW+id0AfwBg=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi95asB/QhrLZTtq1m03Y3Qgl9Bd48aCIV3+SN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRS8epYthksYhVJ6AaBZfYNNwI7CQKaRQIbAfj25nffkKleSwfzCRBP6JDyUPOqLFSg/bLFbfqzkFWiZeTCuSo98tfvUHM0gilYYJq3fXcxPgZVYYzgdNSL9WYUDamQ+xaKmmE2s/mh07JmVUGJIyVLWnIXP09kdFI60kU2M6ImpFe9mbif143NeGNn3GZpAYlWywKU0FMTGZfkwFXyIyYWEKZ4vZWwkZUUWZsNiUbgrf88ippXVS9q6rXuKzU7vM4inACp3AOHlxDDe6gDk1ggPAMr/DmPDovzrvzsWgtOPnMMfyB8/kDx3CM8g==</latexit>

coordinate system
28
ffi
 Simple cubic structure
• Let’s de ne a couple more terms
• The length of one side of the primitive cell which, in
this case, is the distance between adjacent atoms,
is known as the lattice constant. It’s often given the
symbol, a
• We can also count how many atoms are contained
within the primitive cell
• For the simple cubic structure, we have one atom
at each of the 8 corners
• However, each of these atoms is shared with 8
adjacent cells. Therefore, each corner atom
e ectively contributes 1/8 of itself to the primitive
cell.
• The total number of atoms in the primitive cell is:
1 a
<latexit sha1_base64="NDiKFu8cFB/9q7N+2pEVtJD2bZs=">AAAB+3icbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/Yj16CRbBU8mKaC9CwYveKtgPaELZbDft0s0m7E7EEvJXvHhQxKt/xJv/xm2bg7Y+GHi8N8PMvCARXIPrflultfWNza3ydmVnd2//wD6sdnScKsraNBax6gVEM8ElawMHwXqJYiQKBOsGk5uZ331kSvNYPsA0YX5ERpKHnBIw0sCuNjzgEdNeqAjFWSO/xgO75tbdOZxVggtSQwVaA/vLG8Y0jZgEKojWfewm4GdEAaeC5RUv1SwhdEJGrG+oJGafn81vz51TowydMFamJDhz9fdERiKtp1FgOiMCY73szcT/vH4KYcPPuExSYJIuFoWpcCB2ZkE4Q64YBTE1hFDFza0OHROTApi4KiYEvPzyKumc1/FlHd9f1Jp3RRxldIxO0BnC6Ao10S1qoTai6Ak9o1f0ZuXWi/VufSxaS1Yxc4T+wPr8ATCYk+k=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="JdvQKH+PnEc4Ykk4RW+id0AfwBg=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi95asB/QhrLZTtq1m03Y3Qgl9Bd48aCIV3+SN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRS8epYthksYhVJ6AaBZfYNNwI7CQKaRQIbAfj25nffkKleSwfzCRBP6JDyUPOqLFSg/bLFbfqzkFWiZeTCuSo98tfvUHM0gilYYJq3fXcxPgZVYYzgdNSL9WYUDamQ+xaKmmE2s/mh07JmVUGJIyVLWnIXP09kdFI60kU2M6ImpFe9mbif143NeGNn3GZpAYlWywKU0FMTGZfkwFXyIyYWEKZ4vZWwkZUUWZsNiUbgrf88ippXVS9q6rXuKzU7vM4inACp3AOHlxDDe6gDk1ggPAMr/DmPDovzrvzsWgtOPnMMfyB8/kDx3CM8g==</latexit>

8⇥ =1
8
29
ff
fi
 Sharing atoms between primitive cells

• When determining how many primitive cells a

particular atom is shared between, it can be helpful
draw out multiple primitive cells, such as what is
shown in the top gure. Here, we can methodically
determine that the red atom is shared between 8
primitive cells
• The gure on the bottom illustrates the part of each
atom that “belongs” to this particular primitive cell

30
fi
fi
Simple cubic structure
• If we know the lattice constant and the number of
atoms in the unit cell, we can easily calculate the
volume density of the crystal (atoms/volume)
• For the simple cubic structure, we have one atom
in the unit cell and its volume is a3
• Therefore, the volume density is:
1
<latexit sha1_base64="0Tg5dmZFg6iweyfbXflzUvXwu8Y=">AAACDHicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqks3wSK4KjMq6kYouNFdBfuAtpZMeqcNzWSG5I5Yhn6AG3/FjQtF3PoB7vwb08dCWw8EDuecm+QeP5bCoOt+O5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71TNVGiOVR4JCNd95kBKRRUUKCEeqyBhb6Emt+/HPm1e9BGROoWBzG0QtZVIhCcoZXa+UIT4QF1mFYjmYRAO6CMwMHwohloxr2U3R0PbcotumPQeeJNSYFMUW7nv5qdiNvrFHLJjGl4boytlGkUXMIw10wMxIz3WRcalioWgmml42WG9MAqHRpE2h6FdKz+nkhZaMwg9G0yZNgzs95I/M9rJBict1Kh4gRB8clDQSIpRnTUDO0IDRzlwBLGtbB/pbzHbAto+8vZErzZledJ9ajonRa9m5NC6XpaR5bskX1ySDxyRkrkipRJhXDySJ7JK3lznpwX5935mEQzznRml/yB8/kDlTGb9g==</latexit>

Volume density = 3
a
• Typical lattice constants are on the order of 0.5 nm
• When speaking about sub-nm distances, we often
use units of Ångström:
• 1 Å = 0.1 nm
• For a = 5 Å, we get a volume density of:
3
<latexit sha1_base64="mc2AGimJ5OsTTe8S9UQrdTRA8A8=">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</latexit>

27
a
<latexit sha1_base64="JdvQKH+PnEc4Ykk4RW+id0AfwBg=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi95asB/QhrLZTtq1m03Y3Qgl9Bd48aCIV3+SN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRS8epYthksYhVJ6AaBZfYNNwI7CQKaRQIbAfj25nffkKleSwfzCRBP6JDyUPOqLFSg/bLFbfqzkFWiZeTCuSo98tfvUHM0gilYYJq3fXcxPgZVYYzgdNSL9WYUDamQ+xaKmmE2s/mh07JmVUGJIyVLWnIXP09kdFI60kU2M6ImpFe9mbif143NeGNn3GZpAYlWywKU0FMTGZfkwFXyIyYWEKZ4vZWwkZUUWZsNiUbgrf88ippXVS9q6rXuKzU7vM4inACp3AOHlxDDe6gDk1ggPAMr/DmPDovzrvzsWgtOPnMMfyB8/kDx3CM8g==</latexit>

Volume density = 8 ⇥ 10 atoms/m

31
 Body-centred cubic (BCC) structure
• To produce the Body-Centred Cubic structure, we
rst begin with the simple cubic structure (top)
• Then we copy + paste this arrangement of atoms,
with a displacement of:
1 1 1
<latexit sha1_base64="mvdI3uTqUdvEWcvsE9N1BSxOXG8=">AAACI3icbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSzWARBKEkRVQEoeBGdxWsLTShnEwn7dDJhZmJUELexY2v4saFUty48F2cplnY1h8Gfr5zDmfO78WcSWVZ30ZpZXVtfaO8Wdna3tndM/cPnmSUCEJbJOKR6HggKWchbSmmOO3EgkLgcdr2RrfTevuZCsmi8FGNY+oGMAiZzwgojXrmteOBSEV24/gCiJ3WsxxAdjYPvEVAsp5ZtWpWLrxs7MJUUaFmz5w4/YgkAQ0V4SBl17Zi5aYgFCOcZhUnkTQGMoIB7WobQkClm+Y3ZvhEkz72I6FfqHBO/06kEEg5DjzdGYAaysXaFP5X6ybKv3JTFsaJoiGZLfITjlWEp4HhPhOUKD7WBohg+q+YDEFHoXSsFR2CvXjysnmq1+yLmv1wXm3cF3GU0RE6RqfIRpeoge5QE7UQQS/oDX2gT+PVeDcmxtestWQUM4doTsbPLzYopUQ=</latexit>

r̄ = ā + b̄ + c̄
2 2 2
• The rendering on the bottom shows the original
lattice in blue and the new, displaced lattice in red
• In reality, the di erent colours could represent
di erent atoms or they could all be the same atom
• Examples of common materials that form the BCC
structure are chromium and tungsten
• Both of these happen to be metals

32
fi
ff
ff
BCC primitive cell
• The cube in the top gure shows the primitive cell
for the BCC structure
• The extra atoms sitting outside of the primitive cell
have been removed in the bottom gure.
• The BCC primitive cell consists of 8 corner atoms
and one atom at the centre of the cube
• Each corner atom is again shared between
8 adjacent unit cells, so together they
contribute one atom to the primitive cell
• 8 x (1/8) = 1
• The atom at the centre of the cube is not
shared, so it also contributes one atom to
the primitive cell
• Therefore, the BCC primitive cell contains a
total of 2 atoms
33
fi
fi
 Coordination number Simple cubic

• The coordination number is the number of nearest

neighbours to an atom
• Once again, it can be helpful draw out multiple
primitive cells
• In the case of the simple cubic structure, the
coordination number is 6
• For the BCC structure, the coordination number is 8
• If we assume that the atoms are hard spheres, we can
calculate the fraction of space that they occupy within BCC
a primitive cell. This is known as the packing factor:

<latexit sha1_base64="eXpgcRcM8yB9FOg5gYBkR99dqZU=">AAACW3icbVFNa9tAEF0pbeM6aes09JTLElNILq4USptLIFAIPbpQJwHbmNF6ZC/ZD7E7CjFCf7Kn9tC/UrqydWidDCw83nuzO/M2K5T0lCS/onjn2fMXu52X3b39V6/f9A7eXntbOoEjYZV1txl4VNLgiCQpvC0cgs4U3mR3Xxr95h6dl9Z8p1WBUw0LI3MpgAI167kJ4QNVQxB30ix4DoKsqy8muQNRnWxEU+oMHbc5B7LafxCoVH3aivdWlRobEUEs1476tK62xdJI4uvGetbrJ4NkXfwxSFvQZ20NZ70fk7kV4SJDQoH34zQpaFqBIykU1t1J6bEIC8ACxwEa0Oin1Tqbmr8PzJzn1oVjwggN+29HBdr7lc6CUwMt/bbWkE9p45Ly82klTVESGrF5KC8VJ8uboPlcOhSkVgGAcDLMysUSQqwUvqMbQki3V34Mrs8G6adB+u1j//KqjaPDjtgxO2Ep+8wu2Vc2ZCMm2E/2J9qNOtHveCfuxvsbaxy1PYfsv4rf/QV027eD</latexit>

(number of atoms/cell)(volume of each atom)

Packing factor =
volume of unit cell

34
Face-centred cubic (FCC) structure
• The last example we’ll consider is the Face-Centred Cubic structure
• The primitive cell includes:
• 1 atom at each of the 6 corners
• 1 atom centred on each of the 8 faces of the cube
• How many atoms are contained in one primitive cell?
• The primitive cell for each of the three examples we considered is shown below

35
Crystal planes
• Single-crystal semiconductors are grown in a large volume
(weighing ~100s of kg), known as an ingot
• Shown on right
• The ingot is sawed into slices with a diamond-coated blade
• A processing involving machining, chemical etching and
polishing is performed to obtain the silicon wafers that are
the starting point for the fabrication process of any
integrated circuit
• The surface of the wafer is planar
• The orientation of the exposed plane relative to the
crystal structure of the bulk material is an important
parameter that can in uence the electronic and
optical properties of devices fabricated onto that
surface.
• Miller indices are used to specify the crystal plane that is
exposed on the surface of a wafer
fl
 Miller indices
• We will go through a simple example to illustrate the procedure
for determining the Miller indices of a plane c̄
<latexit sha1_base64="gUaJiuiARON2+wAiUnqtRG+RKao=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O6W19Y3NrfJ2ZWd3b/+genjUNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNMbnO/88S1EbF6xGnC/YiOlAgFo2ilTj+gOmOzQbXm1t05yCrxClKDAs1B9as/jFkacYVMUmN6npugn1GNgkk+q/RTwxPKJnTEe5YqGnHjZ/NzZ+TMKkMSxtqWQjJXf09kNDJmGgW2M6I4NsteLv7n9VIMb/xMqCRFrthiUZhKgjHJfydDoTlDObWEMi3srYSNqaYMbUIVG4K3/PIqaV/Uvau693BZa9wXcZThBE7hHDy4hgbcQRNawGACz/AKb07ivDjvzseiteQUM8fwB87nD4gij7k=</latexit>

• The diagram on the right show some of the lattice points of a

crystal
<latexit sha1_base64="/tPcKN/wVxuD/wVASZyGmKEgklo=">AAACC3icbZDLSsNAFIZPvNZ6i7p0M7QIQqEkIupGKLjRXQV7gTaUyXTaDp1M4sxEKCF7N76KGxeKuPUF3Pk2TtMstPWHgY//nMOZ8/sRZ0o7zre1tLyyurZe2Chubm3v7Np7+00VxpLQBgl5KNs+VpQzQRuaaU7bkaQ48Dlt+eOrab31QKViobjTk4h6AR4KNmAEa2P17FLXxzKR6WWUAU4r9xn4aUVlQNKeXXaqTia0CG4OZchV79lf3X5I4oAKTThWquM6kfYSLDUjnKbFbqxohMkYD2nHoMABVV6S3ZKiI+P00SCU5gmNMvf3RIIDpSaBbzoDrEdqvjY1/6t1Yj248BImolhTQWaLBjFHOkTTYFCfSUo0nxjARDLzV0RGWGKiTXxFE4I7f/IiNE+q7lnVvT0t127yOApwCCU4BhfOoQbXUIcGEHiEZ3iFN+vJerHerY9Z65KVzxzAH1mfPwBtm68=</latexit>

• Consider the The Bravais lattice: r̄ = pā + q b̄ + sc̄ <latexit sha1_base64="aOP6KDm6XxOgDPLNlHI6QVA7H7A=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O6W19Y3NrfJ2ZWd3b/+genjUNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNMbnO/88S1EbF6xGnC/YiOlAgFo2ilTj+gOgtmg2rNrbtzkFXiFaQGBZqD6ld/GLM04gqZpMb0PDdBP6MaBZN8VumnhieUTeiI9yxVNOLGz+bnzsiZVYYkjLUthWSu/p7IaGTMNApsZ0RxbJa9XPzP66UY3viZUEmKXLHFojCVBGOS/06GQnOGcmoJZVrYWwkbU00Z2oQqNgRv+eVV0r6oe1d17+Gy1rgv4ijDCZzCOXhwDQ24gya0gMEEnuEV3pzEeXHenY9Fa8kpZo7hD5zPH4adj7g=</latexit>

• The rst step is to nd the lattice points where the plane of b̄

interest intersects each axis ā, b̄, c̄
<latexit sha1_base64="kjjUz2tm1vKtoS0tijhC9HQAVfU=">AAACBHicbZDLSsNAFIYnXmu9RV12M1gEF1ISEXVZEMRlBXuBJpST6aQdOpmEmYlQQhdufBU3LhRx60O4822cpkG09YeBj/+cw5nzBwlnSjvOl7W0vLK6tl7aKG9ube/s2nv7LRWnktAmiXksOwEoypmgTc00p51EUogCTtvB6Gpab99TqVgs7vQ4oX4EA8FCRkAbq2dXvABkBpMTD+cU/BCZ9OyqU3Ny4UVwC6iiQo2e/en1Y5JGVGjCQamu6yTaz0BqRjidlL1U0QTICAa0a1BARJWf5UdM8JFx+jiMpXlC49z9PZFBpNQ4CkxnBHqo5mtT879aN9XhpZ8xkaSaCjJbFKYc6xhPE8F9JinRfGwAiGTmr5gMQQLRJreyCcGdP3kRWqc197zm3p5V69dFHCVUQYfoGLnoAtXRDWqgJiLoAT2hF/RqPVrP1pv1PmtdsoqZA/RH1sc3MrqX1A==</latexit>

• The intersections are at: <latexit sha1_base64="xnmH2aQUQ1O1nYUNP1W2GJ6hKD0=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lU1ItQ8KK3ivYD2lA22027dLMJuxOhhP4ELx4U8eov8ua/cdvmoNUHA4/3ZpiZFyRSGHTdL6ewtLyyulZcL21sbm3vlHf3miZONeMNFstYtwNquBSKN1Cg5O1EcxoFkreC0fXUbz1ybUSsHnCccD+iAyVCwSha6T65Ou2VK27VnYH8JV5OKpCj3it/dvsxSyOukElqTMdzE/QzqlEwySelbmp4QtmIDnjHUkUjbvxsduqEHFmlT8JY21JIZurPiYxGxoyjwHZGFIdm0ZuK/3mdFMNLPxMqSZErNl8UppJgTKZ/k77QnKEcW0KZFvZWwoZUU4Y2nZINwVt8+S9pnlS986p3d1ap3eZxFOEADuEYPLiAGtxAHRrAYABP8AKvjnSenTfnfd5acPKZffgF5+Mb0uKNhQ==</latexit>

p=3
q=2
<latexit sha1_base64="+O2Cq2c6iGX38PvP9JxKV5yF/UA=">AAAB6nicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKewGUS9CwIveIpoHJEuYnXSSIbOz68ysEJZ8ghcPinj1i7z5N06SPWhiQUNR1U13VxALro3rfju5ldW19Y38ZmFre2d3r7h/0NBRohjWWSQi1QqoRsEl1g03AluxQhoGApvB6HrqN59QaR7JBzOO0Q/pQPI+Z9RY6f7xqtItltyyOwNZJl5GSpCh1i1+dXoRS0KUhgmqddtzY+OnVBnOBE4KnURjTNmIDrBtqaQhaj+dnTohJ1bpkX6kbElDZurviZSGWo/DwHaG1Az1ojcV//Paielf+imXcWJQsvmifiKIicj0b9LjCpkRY0soU9zeStiQKsqMTadgQ/AWX14mjUrZOy97d2el6m0WRx6O4BhOwYMLqMIN1KAODAbwDK/w5gjnxXl3PuatOSebOYQ/cD5/ANLkjYU=</latexit>

s=1 ā
<latexit sha1_base64="xhg7/q9IEjmFnnRIithzsmrRGgA=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1ItQ8KK3ivYD2lA220m7dLMJuxuhhP4ELx4U8eov8ua/cdvmoK0PBh7vzTAzL0gE18Z1v53Cyura+kZxs7S1vbO7V94/aOo4VQwbLBaxagdUo+ASG4Ybge1EIY0Cga1gdDP1W0+oNI/loxkn6Ed0IHnIGTVWetDXXq9ccavuDGSZeDmpQI56r/zV7ccsjVAaJqjWHc9NjJ9RZTgTOCl1U40JZSM6wI6lkkao/Wx26oScWKVPwljZkobM1N8TGY20HkeB7YyoGepFbyr+53VSE175GZdJalCy+aIwFcTEZPo36XOFzIixJZQpbm8lbEgVZcamU7IheIsvL5PmWdW7qHr355XaXR5HEY7gGE7Bg0uowS3UoQEMBvAMr/DmCOfFeXc+5q0FJ585hD9wPn8A1GyNhg==</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="BdOmlVkJM+KUk1TF1sMvubJzc4M=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ5lsN+3SzSbsboQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dkpr6xubW+Xtys7u3v5B9fCoreNUUdaisYhVN0DNBJesZbgRrJsohlEgWCeY3OZ+54kpzWP5aKYJ8yMcSR5yisZKnX6AKsPZoFpz6+4cZJV4BalBgeag+tUfxjSNmDRUoNY9z02Mn6EynAo2q/RTzRKkExyxnqUSI6b9bH7ujJxZZUjCWNmShszV3xMZRlpPo8B2RmjGetnLxf+8XmrCGz/jMkkNk3SxKEwFMTHJfydDrhg1YmoJUsXtrYSOUSE1NqGKDcFbfnmVtC/q3lXde7isNe6LOMpwAqdwDh5cQwPuoAktoDCBZ3iFNydxXpx352PRWnKKmWP4A+fzB4UYj7c=</latexit>

• Now, we take the reciprocal of p, q, and s and write them as a

vector!
<latexit sha1_base64="1xykZUkEPdIcAyq1lDmUmDJrwZU=">AAACEnicbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSTbAILUjJVFGXRTe6q2Av0IQymU7SoZNJmJkIJfQZ3Pgqblwo4taVO9/GaRpEW38Y+PjPOZw5vxczKpVtfxmFpeWV1bXiemljc2t7x9zda8soEZi0cMQi0fWQJIxy0lJUMdKNBUGhx0jHG11N6517IiSN+J0ax8QNUcCpTzFS2uqbVeeSBkHF8QXCMD2ZHOdU/yE4yVqqfbNs1+xM1iLAHMogV7NvfjqDCCch4QozJGUP2rFyUyQUxYxMSk4iSYzwCAWkp5GjkEg3zU6aWEfaGVh+JPTjysrc3xMpCqUch57uDJEayvna1Pyv1kuUf+GmlMeJIhzPFvkJs1RkTfOxBlQQrNhYA8KC6r9aeIh0EkqnWNIhwPmTF6Fdr8GzGrw9LTdu8jiK4AAcggqA4Bw0wDVoghbA4AE8gRfwajwaz8ab8T5rLRj5zD74I+PjG0ULnJ4=</latexit>

!
1 1 1
, ,
3 2 1
37
fi
fi
Miller indices ⇣
<latexit sha1_base64="cmz7BbEgFpKbjv6Rx0M4a5LWI/c=">AAAB+HicbZDLSsNAFIZP6q3WS6Mu3QSLUKGUpEp1WXSjuwr2Am0ok+mkHTqZhJmJUEOfxI0LRdz6KO58GydtFtr6w8DHf87hnPm9iFGpbPvbyK2tb2xu5bcLO7t7+0Xz4LAtw1hg0sIhC0XXQ5IwyklLUcVINxIEBR4jHW9yk9Y7j0RIGvIHNY2IG6ARpz7FSGlrYBb713RUrlXOK/WUzgZmya7ac1mr4GRQgkzNgfnVH4Y4DghXmCEpe44dKTdBQlHMyKzQjyWJEJ6gEelp5Cgg0k3mh8+sU+0MLT8U+nFlzd3fEwkKpJwGnu4MkBrL5Vpq/lfrxcq/chPKo1gRjheL/JhZKrTSFKwhFQQrNtWAsKD6VguPkUBY6awKOgRn+cur0K5VnXrVub8oNe6yOPJwDCdQBgcuoQG30IQWYIjhGV7hzXgyXox342PRmjOymSP4I+PzBw+tkW4=</latexit>

⌘
• Now, we multiply this vector by the lowest common denominator (6): 2, 3, 6
• These are the Miller indices for this particular plane c̄
<latexit sha1_base64="gUaJiuiARON2+wAiUnqtRG+RKao=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O6W19Y3NrfJ2ZWd3b/+genjUNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNMbnO/88S1EbF6xGnC/YiOlAgFo2ilTj+gOmOzQbXm1t05yCrxClKDAs1B9as/jFkacYVMUmN6npugn1GNgkk+q/RTwxPKJnTEe5YqGnHjZ/NzZ+TMKkMSxtqWQjJXf09kNDJmGgW2M6I4NsteLv7n9VIMb/xMqCRFrthiUZhKgjHJfydDoTlDObWEMi3srYSNqaYMbUIVG4K3/PIqaV/Uvau693BZa9wXcZThBE7hHDy4hgbcQRNawGACz/AKb07ivDjvzseiteQUM8fwB87nD4gij7k=</latexit>

• It would be referred to as the (236) plane

• Any plane that is parallel to this one will have the same Miller indices
and the two planes will be equivalent
• Examine the simpler examples below <latexit sha1_base64="aOP6KDm6XxOgDPLNlHI6QVA7H7A=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O6W19Y3NrfJ2ZWd3b/+genjUNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNMbnO/88S1EbF6xGnC/YiOlAgFo2ilTj+gOgtmg2rNrbtzkFXiFaQGBZqD6ld/GLM04gqZpMb0PDdBP6MaBZN8VumnhieUTeiI9yxVNOLGz+bnzsiZVYYkjLUthWSu/p7IaGTMNApsZ0RxbJa9XPzP66UY3viZUEmKXLHFojCVBGOS/06GQnOGcmoJZVrYWwkbU00Z2oQqNgRv+eVV0r6oe1d17+Gy1rgv4ijDCZzCOXhwDQ24gya0gMEEnuEV3pzEeXHenY9Fa8kpZo7hD5zPH4adj7g=</latexit>

b̄
• These are three common planes used in semiconductor wafers
• What do you notice?
• The Miller indices are a vector points normal to the plane

ā
<latexit sha1_base64="BdOmlVkJM+KUk1TF1sMvubJzc4M=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ5lsN+3SzSbsboQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GTZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dkpr6xubW+Xtys7u3v5B9fCoreNUUdaisYhVN0DNBJesZbgRrJsohlEgWCeY3OZ+54kpzWP5aKYJ8yMcSR5yisZKnX6AKsPZoFpz6+4cZJV4BalBgeag+tUfxjSNmDRUoNY9z02Mn6EynAo2q/RTzRKkExyxnqUSI6b9bH7ujJxZZUjCWNmShszV3xMZRlpPo8B2RmjGetnLxf+8XmrCGz/jMkkNk3SxKEwFMTHJfydDrhg1YmoJUsXtrYSOUSE1NqGKDcFbfnmVtC/q3lXde7isNe6LOMpwAqdwDh5cQwPuoAktoDCBZ3iFNydxXpx352PRWnKKmWP4A+fzB4UYj7c=</latexit>

38
Families of planes
• Certain crystal structures, such as the ones we have considered already, have
a high degree of symmetry
• We can rotate the primitive cell by 90 degrees about one of the axis and it will
appear the same as it did in the original orientation
• We can de ne families of planes that are indistinguishable from one another if
any combination of translation or rotation operations are performed to the
primitive cell
• For example, the (100), (010), and (001) planes are collectively referred to as
the {100} set of planes

39
fi
Crystal directions
• A vector consisting of three integers is used to specify a
direction the crystal
• For example, if we want to specify a vector that points
diagonally across the primitive cell (shown on right), we
would write it as the [111] direction
• Below are several examples of crystal directions and the
planes that are normal to these directions

40
 Boron Carbon Nitrogen
10.81 12.011 14.007
The crystal structure of silicon
• What do we know about silicon? 13 14 15
• It has four valence electrons that are available to
form bonds Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon Phosphoru
P
• Earlier, we stated that the coordination number of a
crystal is the number of nearest neighbours it has 26.982 28.085 30.974
• This is also how many bonds that each atom forms
27 28 29 30 31 e32
<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

33
• The coordination numbers of the crystals we have
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
considered so far are summarized below:
• Simple cubic: 6
Copper Zinc
Zn Ga Ge As Gallium Germanium Arsenic
58.933 • BCC: 8
58.693 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.630 74.922
• FCC: 12 e Si e
<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

•45 46 way for each

There isn’t an obvious 47 silicon atom48
to form 49 50 51
Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb
4 bonds with neighbouring atoms using any of these
structures

Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony

e
<latexit sha1_base64="wdaSmUkRxAL1valuSxT3PJ+Us40=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSJ4sSQi6rHgRW8V7Qe0sWy2k3bpZhN2N0IJ/QlePCji1V/kzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW+/oeNUMayzWMSqFVCNgkusG24EthKFNAoENoPh9cRvPqHSPJYPZpSgH9G+5CFn1FjpHh9Pu6WyW3GnIIvEy0kZctS6pa9OL2ZphNIwQbVue25i/Iwqw5nAcbGTakwoG9I+ti2VNELtZ9NTx+TYKj0SxsqWNGSq/p7IaKT1KApsZ0TNQM97E/E/r52a8MrPuExSg5LNFoWpICYmk79JjytkRowsoUxxeythA6ooMzadog3Bm395kTTOKt5Fxbs7L1dv8zgKcAhHcAIeXEIVbqAGdWDQh2d4hTdHOC/Ou/Mxa11y8pkD+APn8wfrLY2V</latexit>

102.906 106.42 107.868 112.414

41 114.818 118.710 121.76
The crystal structure of silicon
• Silicon has the Diamond Crystal structure
• Other Group IV elements, including C and Ge, form crystals
with the same structure
• To create the Diamond Structure we can begin with FCC
• We copy/paste this with an o set of a/4 in each direction
• A nice interactive model can be found at the following link:
• http://lampx.tugraz.at/~hadley/memm/materials/silicon/
silicon.php
• What is the coordination number? How many valence electrons
does Si have?

42
ff
The Zincblende structure

• Although we won’t discuss compound

semiconductors in detail, it’s worth noting that the
crystal structure of compound semiconductors is
the same as the Diamond Structure, but with two
types of atoms instead of just one
• This is called the Zincblende Structure
• One example of a compound semiconductor with
this structure is GaAs, depicted on the right
• Each atom (Ga or As) has 4 nearest neighbours
that are the other atomic species

43
 Imperfections and Impurities
• In reality, a single-crystal structure is practically
impossible to create
• We can classify any non-ideal feature present in a
crystal as an imperfection or an impurity
• The rst type of imperfection that we’ll consider is one
that is present in any crystal with a temperature greater
than 0 K
• So far, we’ve assumed that the atoms in a crystal are
stationary
• The temperature of the crystal relates to the thermal
energy of its atoms λ
• In reality, the atoms are vibrating randomly so the
distance between adjacent atoms changes with time
• Although it might seem subtle, this can actually
in uence the electrical properties of
semiconductors
wikipedia.org
• A phonon is a quantum of vibrational energy in a crystal
44
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fi
 Point and line defects
• A second class of imperfection is called a point defect. As the name implies, these
are defects at discrete points in the lattice. They can be:
• Vacancies: Certain lattice sites are missing an atom
• Interstitials: There is an extra atom squeezed in between lattice sites
• Note that point defects alter chemical bonding in their immediate vicinity which
can, in turn, in uence the local electrical properties
• Crystal defects can also take the form of lines
• When part of a line of atoms is missing, it’s called a line dislocation
Line dislocation
Point defects

45
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Impurities
• Impurities are atoms other than the main atoms comprising the solid
• These can be introduced to the crystal accidentally or intentionally
• As you might recall, active electronic devices rely on doped
semiconductors that contain systematically-controlled impurities
• These dopants have a direct in uence on the conductivity of the
semiconductor
• Substitutional impurity: A foreign atom replaces one of the host atoms in the
crystal
• Interstitial impurity: A foreign atom is squeezed in between lattice sites

46
fl