‭1‭I‬n 1848, a French artist named Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of four prints showing his‬

‭dream of a world made up of‬‭democratic and social Republics‬‭.‬

‭ he first print shows people from Europe and America—men and women of different ages and‬
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‭social classes—marching together in a long procession. As they pass, they pay tribute to the‬
‭Statue of Liberty‬‭. During the French Revolution, artists‬‭often showed Liberty as a woman. In this‬
‭image, she holds a‬‭torch of Enlightenment‬‭in one hand‬‭and the‬‭Charter of the Rights of Man‬‭in‬
‭the other. On the ground, we see the broken remains of symbols representing old, absolute‬
‭monarchies.‬

‭ orrieu imagined a future where different nations were clearly identified by their flags and‬
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‭traditional clothes. Leading the march are the‬‭United‬‭States‬‭and‬‭Switzerland‬‭, which were‬
‭already nation-states at the time.‬‭France‬‭, carrying‬‭the revolutionary tricolor flag, is just reaching‬
‭the statue. Behind her are the‬‭German people‬‭, holding‬‭a black, red, and gold flag. However,‬
‭Germany was not yet a unified country in 1848. The flag they carry represents their hope for a‬
‭united German nation under a democratic government.‬

‭ ollowing them are the people of‬‭Austria, the Kingdom‬‭of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland,‬
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‭England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia‬‭. In the sky‬‭above,‬‭Christ, saints, and angels‬‭watch over‬
‭the scene, symbolizing the idea of unity and brotherhood among all nations.‬

‭ his chapter will explore many of the ideas shown in Sorrieu’s artwork. In the 19th century,‬
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‭nationalism‬‭became a powerful force that changed Europe’s‬‭politics and societies. These‬
‭changes led to the creation of‬‭nation-states‬‭, replacing‬‭the old empires that ruled over many‬
‭different ethnic groups.‬

I‭n Europe, governments had long controlled specific territories, but a‬‭nation-state‬‭was different.‬
‭It was a country where most citizens, not just the rulers, felt a shared sense of identity, history,‬
‭and culture. This unity was not something that had always existed—it was created through‬
‭struggles‬‭,‬‭leaders' actions‬‭, and the efforts of ordinary‬‭people.‬

‭ his chapter will explore the different ways in which‬‭nation-states‬‭and‬‭nationalism‬‭developed in‬

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‭19th-century Europe.‬

‭ he first clear idea of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. At that time, France‬
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‭was ruled by a king with absolute power. But after the revolution, power shifted from the king to‬
‭the people. The revolutionaries declared that the people would now decide the nation’s future.To‬
‭create unity, they introduced new ideas and symbols. They promoted‬‭la patrie‬‭(the fatherland)‬
‭and‬‭le citoyen‬‭(the citizen) to show that all people were part of one nation with equal rights. A‬
‭new flag, the tricolor, replaced the royal flag. The Estates General, which was controlled by the‬
‭monarchy, was now elected by citizens and renamed the National Assembly. People sang‬
‭patriotic songs, took oaths, and honored those who died for the country. The government was‬
‭made the same for everyone, taxes within the country were removed, and a common system of‬
‭weights and measures was introduced. Local dialects were discouraged, and the French‬
‭ spoken in Paris became the national language.The revolutionaries also wanted to spread‬
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‭nationalism across Europe. When news of the revolution spread, educated people and students‬
‭in other countries formed Jacobin clubs to support these ideas. This helped prepare the way for‬
‭the French armies, which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the‬
‭1790s.Napoleon came to power and brought back monarchy, but he kept many revolutionary‬
‭reforms. In 1804, he introduced the Civil Code (Napoleonic Code), which ended privileges‬
‭based on birth, made everyone equal under the law, and protected private property. He‬
‭introduced these reforms in the countries he conquered, including the Dutch Republic,‬
‭Switzerland, Italy, and Germany. Napoleon also simplified government administration, ended‬
‭feudalism, and freed peasants from paying dues. In cities, he removed trade restrictions and‬
‭improved transportation. Businessmen benefited because trade became easier with standard‬
‭laws, weights, measures, and currency.At first, many people welcomed French rule. In places‬
‭like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Milan, and Warsaw, the French were seen as liberators. But‬
‭soon, people became unhappy because Napoleon’s rule did not bring full freedom. Heavy taxes,‬
‭strict censorship, and forced military service made people angry.In the 18th century, modern‬
‭nation-states‬‭did not exist. Countries like Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into‬
‭many small kingdoms, each ruled separately. Eastern and Central Europe were controlled by‬
‭large empires with many different ethnic groups. For example, the Habsburg Empire‬
‭(Austria-Hungary) had Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Poles, Slovaks, Croats, and Romanians.‬
‭They spoke different languages and had different cultures, which made unity difficult. The only‬
‭thing connecting them was their loyalty to the emperor.‬‭The Aristocracy and the Middle‬
‭Class‬‭The aristocracy (rich landowners) was the most powerful class in Europe. They had large‬
‭ states and luxurious city homes. They spoke French in high society and married into other‬
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‭aristocratic families. But they were a small group. Most people were peasants. In Western‬
‭Europe, many peasants owned small farms, while in Eastern and Central Europe, large estates‬
‭were worked by serfs (peasants forced to work on noble land).In the late 1700s and 1800s,‬
‭industrialization led to new social classes. Factories and trade grew in England first, then in‬
‭France and Germany. Cities grew, and a new middle class of businessmen, factory owners, and‬
‭professionals emerged. In Central and Eastern Europe, these groups remained small until later.‬
‭This educated middle class wanted national unity and an end to aristocratic rule.‬‭What Did‬
‭Liberal Nationalism Stand For?‬‭Nationalism in 19th-century Europe was linked to‬
l‭iberalism‬‭. The word‬‭liberalism‬‭comes from‬‭liber‬‭, meaning‬‭free‬‭. The middle class believed in‬
‭individual freedom and equality under the law. They wanted a government chosen by the‬
‭people, not by kings or religious leaders. The French Revolution introduced the idea of‬
‭representative government, where elected leaders made decisions.But liberalism did not mean‬
‭equal voting rights for everyone. In revolutionary France, only property-owning men could vote.‬
‭Poor men and all women were excluded, except for a short time under the Jacobins. When‬
‭Napoleon took over, he again limited voting and gave women fewer rights. Throughout the 19th‬
‭and early 20th centuries, women and the poor fought for equal political rights.In economics,‬
‭liberalism meant free markets without government restrictions. The middle class supported this‬
‭because it helped businesses grow. For example, in German-speaking regions, Napoleon’s‬
‭reforms created a more unified economy, which made trade easier.‬‭Economic Barriers‬‭and‬
‭the Zollverein‬
‭3‭I‬n the early 19th century, Germany was not a single country but a collection of‬‭39 small‬
‭states‬‭, each with its own‬‭currency, weights, and measures‬‭. This made trade difficult.‬

‭ or example, in 1833, a merchant traveling from‬‭Hamburg‬‭to Nuremberg‬‭had to pass through‬‭11‬

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‭customs barriers‬‭, paying a tax of‬‭5%‬‭at each one.‬‭Taxes were often based on the weight or‬
‭measurement of goods, but since each region had different measurement systems, calculating‬
‭them was time-consuming. For instance, the unit for measuring cloth, called‬‭elle‬‭, was different in‬
‭each region—54.7 cm in Frankfurt, 55.1 cm in Mainz, 65.6 cm in Nuremberg, and 53.5 cm in‬
‭Freiburg.‬

‭ usinessmen saw these barriers as obstacles to economic growth and demanded a‬‭unified‬
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‭economic system‬‭where goods, people, and money could‬‭move freely. In‬‭1834‬‭, Prussia led the‬
‭creation of a‬‭customs union‬‭called the‬‭Zollverein‬‭,‬‭which most German states joined. This union‬
‭removed trade taxes‬‭and reduced the number of currencies‬‭from over‬‭thirty to just two‬‭. The‬
‭expansion of‬‭railways‬‭further improved trade and movement,‬‭strengthening the idea of‬‭national‬
‭unity‬‭through economic cooperation.‬

‭A New Conservatism After 1815‬

‭ fter‬‭Napoleon’s defeat in 1815‬‭, European rulers wanted‬‭to bring back‬‭traditional systems of‬
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‭power‬‭.‬‭Conservatives‬‭believed in preserving‬‭monarchies,‬‭churches, social hierarchies, property‬
‭rights, and family structures‬‭. However, they also‬‭realized that some‬‭modern changes‬‭made‬
‭under Napoleon—like a strong economy, efficient bureaucracy, and the end of feudalism—could‬
‭actually help monarchies stay powerful.‬

I‭n‬‭1815‬‭, the major European powers (‬‭Britain, Russia,‬‭Prussia, and Austria‬‭) met at the‬‭Congress‬
‭of Vienna‬‭, led by Austrian Chancellor‬‭Duke Metternich‬‭,‬‭to redraw Europe’s political map. Their‬
‭goal was to‬‭undo Napoleon’s changes‬‭and restore the‬‭old ruling families.‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he‬‭Bourbon dynasty‬‭was restored in France, and France‬‭lost the territories it had taken‬
‭under Napoleon.‬
‭●‬ ‭To prevent France from expanding again, new states were created along its borders.‬
‭The‬‭Netherlands‬‭(which included Belgium) was set up‬‭in the north, and‬‭Genoa was‬
‭added to Piedmont‬‭in the south.‬
‭●‬ ‭Prussia‬‭gained new land in the west, and‬‭Austria‬‭took‬‭control of‬‭northern Italy‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭39-state German Confederation‬‭(formed by Napoleon)‬‭remained.‬
‭●‬ ‭Russia‬‭took part of‬‭Poland‬‭, and‬‭Prussia‬‭got part of‬‭Saxony‬‭.‬

‭The main goal was to‬‭restore monarchies‬‭and create a‬‭stable conservative order‬‭in Europe.‬

‭ hese‬‭conservative governments‬‭were‬‭strict and autocratic‬‭. They did not allow‬‭criticism‬‭and‬

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‭controlled newspapers, books, plays, and songs to prevent ideas of‬‭liberty and freedom‬‭from‬
‭spreading. However, the‬‭memory of the French Revolution‬‭still inspired liberals. One of their‬
‭biggest demands was‬‭freedom of the press‬‭.‭T
‬ he Revolutionaries‬
‭ ‬‭After 1815, many people who opposed monarchy had to go‬‭underground‬‭to avoid being‬
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‭arrested.‬‭Secret societies‬‭were formed in many parts‬‭of Europe to train revolutionaries and‬
‭spread their ideas.‬

‭ eing a‬‭revolutionary‬‭at this time meant fighting‬‭against monarchies and supporting‬‭liberty,‬

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‭freedom, and nation-states‬‭. Many revolutionaries believed‬‭that nations should be‬‭unified‬‭to‬
‭ensure real freedom.‬

‭ ne famous revolutionary was‬‭Giuseppe Mazzini‬‭from‬‭Italy. Born in‬‭Genoa in 1807‬‭, he joined a‬

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‭secret group called the‬‭Carbonari‬‭. In‬‭1831‬‭, at just‬‭24 years old‬‭, he was‬‭exiled‬‭for attempting a‬
‭revolution in‬‭Liguria‬‭. He then founded two more secret‬‭groups:‬

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1 ‭ oung Italy‬‭in‬‭Marseilles‬‭.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Young Europe‬‭in‬‭Berne‬‭, which included young revolutionaries‬‭from‬‭Poland, France, Italy,‬
‭and the German states‬‭.‬

‭ azzini believed that‬‭God had created nations as natural‬‭divisions of humanity‬‭. He thought Italy‬
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‭should not remain divided into small states but should become a‬‭united republic‬‭. He also‬
‭believed that different nations should form a broader‬‭alliance‬‭for freedom.‬

I‭nspired by Mazzini,‬‭secret societies‬‭were also formed‬‭in‬‭Germany, France, Switzerland, and‬

‭Poland‬‭.‬

‭ azzini’s ideas were a‬‭threat to monarchies‬‭. His opposition‬‭to‬‭kings‬‭and his vision of‬
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‭democratic republics‬‭scared the conservatives.‬‭Metternich‬‭,‬‭the Austrian leader, even called him‬
‭"the most dangerous enemy of our social order."‬

‭Romanticism and Nationalism‬

‭ ome people, instead of focusing on political changes, believed that‬‭emotions, intuition, and‬
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‭traditions‬‭could bring people together. They wanted‬‭to create a shared sense of history and‬
‭culture as the foundation of a nation.‬

‭ he German philosopher‬‭Johann Gottfried Herder‬‭(1744–1803)‬‭believed that true German‬

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‭culture could be found in the‬‭common people‬‭(‬‭das volk‬‭).‬‭He thought that‬‭folk songs, poetry, and‬
‭dances‬‭expressed the true spirit of the nation (‬‭volksgeist‬‭).‬‭Collecting and preserving these folk‬
‭traditions became an important part of‬‭nation-building‬‭.‬

‭ his was especially important in‬‭Poland‬‭, which had‬‭been divided among‬‭Russia, Prussia, and‬
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‭Austria‬‭at the end of the 18th century. Even though‬‭Poland was no longer an independent‬
‭country,‬‭national identity‬‭remained strong through‬‭music and language‬‭. Composer‬‭Karol‬
‭Kurpinski‬‭used operas and music to celebrate the Polish‬‭struggle, and traditional dances like the‬
‭polonaise‬‭and‬‭mazurka‬‭became symbols of nationalism.‬

‭ anguage also played a major role. After Russia took control of Poland, the‬‭Polish language‬
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‭was banned‬‭in schools and replaced with Russian. In‬‭1831‬‭, the Polish people rebelled against‬
‭ Russian rule, but the revolt was crushed. Afterward, Polish‬‭priests and bishops‬‭resisted by‬
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‭continuing to use Polish in church services. Many were‬‭arrested or sent to Siberia‬‭, but Polish‬
‭became a symbol of resistance against Russian control.‬

‭Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt‬

‭ he‬‭1830s‬‭were a time of great‬‭economic struggle‬‭in‬‭Europe. The population was growing‬

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‭rapidly, and there were‬‭not enough jobs‬‭for everyone.‬‭Many rural people moved to cities but‬
‭ended up living in‬‭overcrowded slums‬‭.‬

‭ mall business owners struggled because they could not compete with‬‭cheap, machine-made‬
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‭goods‬‭from England, where industrialization was more‬‭advanced. This was especially true for‬
‭textile workers, who still made cloth by hand or with simple machines. In some areas where‬
‭aristocrats‬‭still had power,‬‭peasants‬‭suffered under‬‭heavy taxes and feudal duties‬‭. If there was‬
‭a‬‭bad harvest‬‭, food prices went up, and people became‬‭even poorer.‬

‭ he year‬‭1848‬‭was especially bad. There were‬‭food‬‭shortages‬‭and‬‭high unemployment‬‭, leading‬

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‭to protests in‬‭Paris‬‭. People built‬‭barricades‬‭in the‬‭streets, forcing‬‭King Louis Philippe to flee‬‭.‬
‭The‬‭National Assembly‬‭then declared a‬‭Republic‬‭, gave‬‭voting rights‬‭to all men over 21, and‬
‭promised the‬‭right to work‬‭. They even set up‬‭national‬‭workshops‬‭to provide jobs.‬

I‭n‬‭1845‬‭, a similar revolt happened in‬‭Silesia‬‭(a region‬‭in Germany).‬‭Weavers‬‭protested against‬

‭factory owners who‬‭paid them very little‬‭for their‬‭work. On‬‭June 4‬‭, a‬‭large group of weavers‬
‭marched to the factory owner's mansion,‬‭demanding‬‭higher wages‬‭. When he refused, some‬
‭broke into the house‬‭, destroying furniture and supplies.‬‭The‬‭owner fled‬‭but later returned with‬
‭army troops‬‭, who‬‭killed 11 weavers‬‭.‬

‭1848: The Revolution of the Liberals‬

‭ hile poor workers and peasants were protesting for‬‭better living conditions‬‭, the‬‭middle class‬
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‭was leading a different kind of revolution. These were educated people, such as‬‭lawyers,‬
‭businessmen, and artisans‬‭, who wanted‬‭democratic government‬‭and national unity‬‭.‬

I‭n‬‭February 1848‬‭, protests in‬‭France‬‭led to the fall‬‭of the monarchy and the creation of a‬
‭Republic‬‭with‬‭universal male suffrage‬‭(all adult men‬‭could vote). Similar revolts happened in‬
‭places like‬‭Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian‬‭Empire‬‭, where people demanded‬
‭constitutional government‬‭and‬‭national unification‬‭.‬

I‭n‬‭Germany‬‭, many‬‭political associations‬‭joined together‬‭and formed the‬‭Frankfurt Parliament‬‭to‬

‭create a unified German nation. On‬‭May 18, 1848‬‭,‬‭831‬‭representatives‬‭gathered at‬‭St. Paul’s‬
‭Church‬‭to write a‬‭constitution‬‭. They planned for a‬‭monarchy‬‭that would be controlled by a‬
‭ ‬‭parliament‬‭. However, when they offered the crown to‬‭King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia‬‭, he‬
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‭rejected it‬‭and sided with the‬‭aristocrats‬‭and‬‭military‬‭to‬‭oppose the parliament‬‭.‬

‭ eanwhile, the‬‭workers and peasants‬‭had their own‬‭demands, but the‬‭middle-class leaders‬

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‭refused to support them. As a result, they lost the support of the‬‭common people‬‭, and the‬
‭parliament became weaker. Eventually,‬‭troops were‬‭called in‬‭and the‬‭assembly was dissolved‬‭.‬

‭ omen had actively participated in these movements by forming‬‭political associations‬‭,‬

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‭publishing‬‭newspapers‬‭, and joining‬‭demonstrations‬‭.‬‭But despite their efforts,‬‭women were not‬
‭given voting rights‬‭. In the‬‭Frankfurt Parliament‬‭,‬‭women could only‬‭watch from the visitor's‬
‭gallery‬‭.‬

‭ lthough the‬‭monarchies‬‭suppressed the‬‭liberal movements‬‭in 1848, they realized that‬

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‭revolution and repression‬‭could not continue forever.‬‭In the years that followed, they started‬
‭making some‬‭changes‬‭, such as‬‭ending feudalism‬‭and‬‭allowing more self-rule‬‭in places like‬
‭Hungary and Russia‬‭.‬

‭The Unification of Germany and Italy‬

‭ fter‬‭1848‬‭, nationalism in Europe became less about‬‭democracy‬‭and more about‬‭strengthening‬

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‭state power‬‭. This was seen in the unification of‬‭Germany‬‭and‬‭Italy‬‭, which were led by‬
‭conservative leaders‬‭rather than revolutionaries.‬

I‭n‬‭Germany‬‭, the idea of national unity was strong‬‭among‬‭middle-class Germans‬‭, but their‬‭liberal‬
‭efforts‬‭failed in 1848 because the monarchy and aristocrats‬‭opposed them. Instead,‬‭Prussia‬‭led‬
‭the movement for unification.‬

‭ he‬‭Prussian Prime Minister, Otto von Bismarck‬‭, was‬‭the key figure in this process. He used the‬
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‭army‬‭and‬‭diplomatic strategy‬‭to achieve German unity‬‭through‬‭three wars‬‭—against‬‭Denmark‬
‭(1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870-71)‬‭. After‬‭winning these wars,‬‭King William I of‬
‭Prussia‬‭was declared‬‭Emperor of Germany‬‭in‬‭1871‬‭at‬‭the‬‭Palace of Versailles‬‭.‬

‭ fter unification,‬‭Germany‬‭focused on‬‭modernizing‬‭its economy, currency, banking, and legal‬

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‭systems‬‭, with‬‭Prussian policies‬‭becoming the standard‬‭for the whole country.‬

‭ ike Germany,‬‭Italy‬‭was also divided. In the‬‭1830s‬‭,‬‭Giuseppe Mazzini‬‭tried to unite Italy through‬

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‭revolutions‬‭, but they failed. Later,‬‭King Victor Emmanuel‬‭II of Sardinia-Piedmont‬‭took the lead in‬
‭unification.‬

‭ is‬‭Prime Minister, Count Cavour‬‭, was not a revolutionary‬‭but a skilled‬‭politician‬‭. He made an‬
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‭alliance with France‬‭and defeated‬‭Austria‬‭in‬‭1859‬‭.‬‭Meanwhile,‬‭Giuseppe Garibaldi‬‭led a‬
‭volunteer army called the‬‭Red Shirts‬‭, which helped‬‭unite‬‭southern Italy‬‭by defeating the Spanish‬
‭rulers. In‬‭1861‬‭,‬‭Victor Emmanuel II‬‭was declared‬‭King‬‭of a united Italy‬‭.‬
‭ However, most‬‭ordinary Italians‬‭were‬‭unaware of nationalism‬‭. Many‬‭peasants‬‭in the south‬
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‭thought‬‭"Italia"‬‭was the name of the‬‭King’s wife‬‭!‬

‭The Formation of Britain‬

‭ nlike Germany and Italy,‬‭Britain‬‭became a‬‭nation-state‬‭through a‬‭gradual process‬‭, rather than‬

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‭through revolution.‬

‭ efore the‬‭18th century‬‭, people in the British Isles‬‭identified as‬‭English, Scottish, Welsh, or Irish‬‭.‬
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‭But as‬‭England‬‭grew in‬‭power‬‭, it took control over‬‭the other regions.‬

‭●‬ I‭n‬‭1707‬‭, the‬‭Act of Union‬‭between‬‭England and Scotland‬‭created‬‭Great Britain‬‭. England‬

‭dominated the British‬‭Parliament‬‭, and Scottish culture‬‭was‬‭suppressed‬‭. The‬‭Scottish‬
‭Highlanders‬‭were‬‭banned‬‭from speaking Gaelic and wearing‬‭traditional clothes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Ireland‬‭was also controlled by‬‭England‬‭, with Protestants‬‭ruling over the Catholic majority.‬
‭After an‬‭Irish rebellion‬‭in‬‭1798‬‭, Ireland was‬‭forced‬‭into the United Kingdom‬‭in‬‭1801‬‭.‬

‭ new‬‭British identity‬‭was created through‬‭symbols‬‭like the‬‭Union Jack (flag), God Save the‬
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‭King (national anthem), and the English language‬‭.‬‭However, the‬‭other nations‬‭remained‬
‭subordinate to England‬‭.‬

‭Nationalism and Imperialism‬

‭ y the‬‭late 19th century‬‭, nationalism became more‬‭aggressive‬‭, leading to‬‭wars‬‭and‬‭imperialism‬‭.‬

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‭The‬‭Balkans‬‭, controlled by the‬‭Ottoman Empire‬‭, became‬‭a center of‬‭conflict‬‭as different‬‭Slavic‬
‭groups‬‭fought for independence.‬

‭ uropean powers like‬‭Russia, Germany, England, and‬‭Austria-Hungary‬‭competed for control of‬

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‭the Balkans, leading to a series of‬‭wars‬‭and eventually‬‭World War I‬‭in‬‭1914‬‭.‬

‭ t the same time,‬‭anti-imperial movements‬‭were growing‬‭worldwide. Colonized people‬‭fought‬

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‭for independence‬‭, inspired by nationalism, but developed‬‭their own versions of it.‬